Roman Britain: Agricola & Caledonia (AD 77-85)

The Year of the Four Emperors – Defeat of the Ordovices – The Subjection of Anglesey – Administrative Successes – Agricola Invades Caledonia – Agricola in Ireland? – A Fleet Sails Around Britain – The Battle of Mons Graupius –Domitian’s Machinations

Four years after participating in the Battle of Watling Street against Boudica’s British army, Gnaeus Agricola was made quaestor (or head of law enforcement) in the Roman province of Asia (the remnants of the Seleucid Empire, which had been conquered by Rome in 190 BC). In AD 66 he was made Tribune of the Plebs; during the days of the Roman Republic, this office—the highest available to plebians, or “commoners”, in contrast to the aristocratic patricians—served as a check against the patrician Senate and magistrates. During imperial Rome, the tribune’s duties were taken over by the emperor, and it was a title of status more than anything else. Two years later, in AD 68, he was made praetor (a court judge), and he supported Vespasian (a hero of Claudius’ invasion of Britain 25 years earlier) in his bid for the throne during the Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69). Vespasian appointed him the governor of Gallia Aquitania (part of modern France), and in AD 77 Agricola was sent to govern Roman Britain.

The Squashing of the Ordovices

The relative peace won by the defeat of Boudica’s rebellion was brought low during the Year of the Four Emperors. Dissent amongst the legions, each vying for a particular candidate, spread across the Continent and trickled into Britain. The Roman governors couldn’t keep discipline among the legions, and Venutius of the Brigantes took advantage of Roman Britain’s weak state. Venutius wrested control of northern Roman Britain, and once things settled down in Rome, the Roman governors were able to regain control of the legions. The two governors preceding Agricola turned their forces against the Brigantes and Silures. The second governor, Frontinus, expanded Roman rule to all of South Wales. When Agricola arrived in Britain in AD 77, he received news that the British tribe of the Ordovices, in North Wales, had all but wiped out the Roman cavalry stationed in their territory. Agricola moved immediately against the Ordovices and put them in their place. He then turned his attention to Anglesey, the Druid stronghold that had been ravaged by Paulinus but which had yet to be subjected to Roman rule (Paulinus had to abandon his endeavors there to deal with Boudica’s uprising). Agricola finished what Paulinus had started and brought Anglesey under Roman rule in AD 78.

While Agricola is known for his militant exploits (of which the subjugation of the Ordovices and Anglesey were but the beginning), he was an all-around excellent governor. He reformed the corrupt corn levy, introduced Roman measures, encouraged building towns on the Roman model, and advocated the Roman education of the sons of native nobility. He catered to the British nobility, bringing them into the Roman fold as a means of extending Roman control not merely by the sword but by culture and material trappings, as well. These administrative successes were complemented by further military successes, and his victories would make him a hero in Roman eyes. His renown would become so great that even an emperor felt threatened by him. Agricola is best known for extending Roman control into Caledonia (modern Scotland) and whooping the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius.

A pair of Roman triremes

In AD 79 Agricola pushed his Roman forces to the estuary of the Taus River (the Firth of Tay) and built a number of forts before pulling back to the British interior. He wouldn’t push farther into Caledonia until AD 82, but in the meantime he made one (or two) major accomplishments. The first is that he ordered his fleet to circle the island of Britain, confirming for posterity what had been assumed, that Britain was, indeed, an island. The second accomplishment is a possible invasion of Ireland. In AD 81, according to Tacitus, Agricola “crossed in the first ship” and defeated peoples heretofore unknown to the Romans. The body of water he crossed is unknown; it may have been the Clyde or the Forth. We do know that Agricola fortified the coast facing Ireland, and he said that Ireland could be conquered with a single legion and supporting auxiliaries. Agricola had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped could be used as a pawn for the conquest of Ireland, but the conquest never happened—he would eventually be compelled to push farther into Caledonia. Thus Tacitus might refer to a small-scale exploratory raid into Ireland. Bolstering this theory is the Irish legend of a legendary High King who was exiled from Ireland as a boy only to return from Britain at the head of an army to claim the throne. Traditional dating of his return is sometime between AD 76-80, and archaeology has found Roman or Romano-British artifacts in several sites associated with the High King. Thus Agricola may indeed have used the Irish king as a pawn in a gamble to take Ireland, but halfway into the expedition events on the Caledonian border may have compelled him to return.

Aftermath of the Night Attack

The event prompting Agricola to push deeper into Caledonia was a night attack on one of the Ninth Legion’s border forts. The Caledonians assaulted the camp, and all would have been lost had Agricola’s cavalry not launched into the melee. The Caledonians retreated, and Agricola responded to their incursion with an incursion of his own. In the summer of AD 83, Agricola marched his forces into Caledonian territory, laying waste to their granaries. With their supplies threatened, the Caledonians were forced to confront the Romans at what would come to be known as the Battle of Mons Graupius.

On the Eve of Mons Graupius

The Caledonian forces, led by Calgacus, a chieftain of the Caledonian Confederacy, positioned themselves on a hill, giving them the advantage of higher ground. Tacitus puts their numbers around 30,000 and reports that their first line was situated on the flat ground at the foot of the slope. The further ranks were positioned in tiers up the hill in a horseshoe formation, and Calgacus’ chariots charged back-and-forth on the level ground in front of the first line. Agricola had encamped close to the hill, and he left his legionaries at the camp as a reserve. He positioned his auxiliary infantry—composed of two Bavarian cohorts and two cohorts of Tungrian swordsmen—in the center of his life; 3000 Roman cavalry were placed on the auxiliaries’ flanks. His forces, including the legionaries in reserve, amounted to somewhere between 17,000 and 30,000 men. After an exchange of missiles, Agricola ordered the auxiliaries to advance. They cut through the front ranks of the Caledonians, prompting an uphill rout. The higher ranks attempted to outflank the Roman auxiliaries, but they in turn were outflanked by the Roman cavalry. This was too much to face, and the Caledonians broke en masse and fled into the nearby woodlands. The Roman forces hunted them into the woodlands, but here the Caledonians were able to dissipate, and they fought small guerrilla skirmishes against the hunting Romans, giving their comrades a window of time to escape. By nightfall the hunt was over, and come morning the Roman scouts had lost all traces of Calgacus’ army. Tacitus reports that 10,000 Caledonians died at a cost of 300 auxiliary troops, but this is undoubtedly an exaggeration.

The Roman victory at Mons Graupius was hailed as the final battle in the subjection of Britain. Agricola became a hero in Roman eyes, and when a new emperor, Domitian, took the throne (after Titus, Vespasian’s son), he had Agricola recalled to Rome (AD 85)—perhaps because he feared Agricola’s exploits would bring him glory he wanted for himself. Domitian didn’t want the competition. Agricola was praised by Domitian, a mere publicity stunt, and Domitian proposed making him governor of the provincial backwater of Africa. Agricola declined, either because of poor health or (as Tacitus claims), the machinations of Domitian. Whatever the cause, Agricola was forced out of the limelight and lived the rest of his life without holding any civil or military posts. Agricola died in AD 93; rumors spread that Domitian had him poisoned. 

Roman Britain: Boudica's Rebellion (ca AD 60)

The Death of Prasutagus – The Scourging of a Queen – The Burning of Camulodunum – The Battle of Camulodunum – The Sacking of Londinium & Verulamium – The Battle of Watling Street – The Death of Boudica

Some two decades after Claudius’ victorious march into Camulodunum, a relative peace had settled over Roman Britain—but it would be a peace broken by a torrent of bloodshed. Those native tribes that hadn’t been conquered by Rome had submitted to the Empire, and the Iceni tribe located in modern Norfolk was one of these. In AD 60 the Iceni ruler, Prasutagus, ruled as an ally of Rome (the Iceni had been Roman allies since Claudius’ invasion in AD 63). At his death he left his kingdom to his daughters and to the Roman emperor. Rome ignored his will, however, and annexed his kingdom (“conquering” it by diplomacy and stripping away its independence). As to the nature of this annexation, classical historians differ. Tacitus tells us that the Romans flogged Prasutagus’ wife, Boudica, and raped her two daughters before confiscating the estates of Iceni nobles. Cassius Dio, however, doesn’t mention flogging nor rape; Rome, he says, confiscated imperial donations to the Iceni while Seneca, a Roman financier and philosopher, called in the loans he’d forced on the Britons. Whatever the catalyst, the result was the same: Prasutagus’ wife, Boudica, rebelled against the Romans who had seized her late husband’s kingdom.

At the time Paulinus, the Roman governor of Britain, was fighting against the Druid stronghold in Anglesey. Because the main bulk of his forces were to the north, the Roman garrisons throughout southern Britain weren’t prepared to snuff out Boudica’s rebellion. Inspired by Arminius, the barbarian prince who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and by the British natives who had expelled Caesar from British shores in the last century BC, Boudica rallied the Iceni and Trinovantes to her side. They marched on Camulodunum, now a Roman colony (where discharged Roman soldiers lived). This old Trinovante capital now sported a temple to the deceased Emperor Claudius, and the natives despised the occupiers who mistreated the locals and who had built Claudius’ temple at their expense. Tacitus tells us, “It was against the veterans that [the rebels’] hatred was most intense. For these new settlers in the colony of Camulodunum drove people out of their houses, ejected them from their farms, [and] called them captives and slaves…”

The Battle of Camulodonum

As the native troops came into sight of the city, the Roman garrison called for help from the procurator, Catus Decianus. Decianus, perhaps underestimating the size of the rebel force, only sent two hundred poorly-trained auxiliary troops. They couldn’t stand against Boudica’s forces, and Boudica laid siege to Camulodunum. Word of the siege reached Petillius Cerialis, the commander of the Ninth Legion. The Ninth was spread out across a network of small forts, and on short notice the commander couldn’t bring his entire legion together. Acting in the small window of time he had, he was able to muster about 2500 men to try and relieve the besieged colony. His troops likely consisted of his first cohort, maybe two others, some auxiliary infantry, and a unit of about 500 cavalry. He set out from his HQ in Lindum Colonia (modern Lincoln) and marched about 75 miles in three days. By the time they arrived, it was evident that they were too late: the city had been methodically and brutally razed to the ground, pillars of smoke choked the sky, and the last survivors of the colony, who had taken refuge in the Temple of Claudius for two days, had been massacred in the temple. Spurred on my a desire for not only glory but also vengeance, Cerialis pushed his troops against the sacked city—and suffered a crushing defeat. Boudica’s blood-drunk forces overwhelmed his paltry number of infantry, massacring them. Cerialis and a handful of his cavalry escaped on horseback.

The Sacking of Verulamium

Paulinus had just decimated the Druids and their followers at Anglesey when he heard of the revolt. He hurried his troops to Londinium (modern London), which was now not even twenty years old. Londinium had been founded in AD 43 where the Roman troops had first crossed the Thames, and since then it had evolved into a thriving commercial hub for Roman Britain. Boudica had abandoned the smoldering ruins of Camulodunum and was marching towards Londinium. Lacking numbers to defend the city against Boudica’s 100,000 rebels, Paulinus ordered a city-wide evacuation. Panic gripped the city as people fled either to the sea or into the province’s interior, and anyone who remained in the city when Boudica arrived was put to the sword. Boudica sacked the city and turned her teeth against another Roman town, Verulamium (modern St. Albans). Between the three cities she sacked, around 70-80,000 Romans and British were killed. She showed no mercy: prisoners were burned alive, hung the dead on gibbets as signs to passerby, and even resorted to crucifixion—a method of execution they learned from the Romans. Cassius Dio tells us that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn into their mouths “to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behavior” in sacred places. Boudica preferred the groves of Andraste, a British goddess of victory.

While Boudica ravaged Verulamium, Paulinus regrouped his forces in the West Midlands. His forces consisted of the Fourteenth Legion, detachments of the Twentieth, and numerous auxiliaries. The prefect of the Second Legion, near Exeter, ignored Paulinus’ call for troops. The Ninth, having been routed by Boudica at the Battle of Camulodunum, was in no shape to lend a helping hand. Paulinus’ troops probably numbered around 10,000 men. Though a large number, they were vastly outnumbered by Boudica’s forces. Ancient sources place her numbers around 230,000 warriors, but this is doubtlessly exaggerated and may include her camp followers (e.g. women and children, cooks, etc.). Nevertheless Boudica’s troops greatly outnumbered those of Paulinus, but hers were untrained and undisciplined whereas the Romans were disciplined professionals with superior equipment. Paulinus took a stand along a Roman road (now known as Watling Street), placing his troops in a defile with woods behind him to prevent Britons taking their rear, gorges on the sides to prevent flanking maneuvers, and a wide plain ahead of them that promised open combat (the Britons excelled at guerrilla tactics, but the Romans were best in set-piece battles). Paulinus placed his legionaries in the center with the auxiliaries on the flanks and cavalry on the wings. Cassius Dio reports that if they were lined one deep, they still wouldn’t have extended the length of Boudica’s line; Paulinus compensated for this by placing his troops in such a way that the enemy would be funneled against him, so that Boudica could only send equal numbers against the entrenched Roman troops. The upcoming battle promised to be a tit-for-tat slugfest.

Boudica Rallies her Troops

Boudica gathered her forces in the valley before the Romans. She rode in a chariot, her daughters flanking her, and she exhorted the Britons to give the Romans hell. Tacitus records her inspiring speech, though whether he invented it for dramatic flair is unknown. Tacitus tells us that she presented herself not as a queen stripped of her kingdom but as a Briton avenging her lost freedom, her lashed body, and her ravaged daughters. “But now… it is not as a woman descended from noble ancestry, but as one of the people that I am avenging lost freedom, my scourged body, the outraged chastity of my daughters. Roman lust has gone so far that not our very persons, nor even age or virginity, are left unpolluted. But heaven is on the side of a righteous vengeance; a legion which dared to fight has perished; the rest are hiding themselves in their camp, or are thinking anxiously of flight. They will not sustain even the din and the shout of so many thousands, much less our charge and our blows. If you weigh well the strength of the armies, and the causes of the war, you will see that in this battle you must conquer or die. This is a woman’s resolve; as for men, they may live and be slaves.”

Paulinus gave his own speech to his troops, but his was succinct and straightforward absent dramatic flair. The bluntness of Paulinus’ speech may imply a kernel of truth in it; after all, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who would make a name for himself in the next couple decades, was a relative of Tacitus, and at the time of the battle, he served on Paulinus’ staff and could have reported it. According to Tacitus, Paulinus exhorted his soldiers, saying, “Ignore the racket made by these savages. There are more women than men in their ranks. They are not soldiers—they’re not even properly equipped. We’ve beaten them before and when they see our weapons and feel our spirit, they’ll crack. Stick together. Throw the javelins, then push forward: knock them down with your shields and finish them off with your swords. Forget about plunder. Just win and you’ll have everything.”

The Battle of Watling Street

The Roman lines girded themselves for battle, and the Britons gave a bloodcurdling war cry and surged forward. The Romans gritted their teeth and stood their ground. As the first wave of Britons came into range of their pila (or heavy javelins), they began the slaughter. Each legionary carried two pila that could be hurled into the ranks of the oncoming enemy. Pila were designed to bent when they hit shield, making it all but impossible for enemies to pull the spearheads from their shields—making the shields unwieldy and unusable. Shields had to be discarded, leaving the Britons unguarded; and because shafts broke, the enemy couldn’t reuse the javelins as spears against the Romans. Two volleys of thousands of pila crashed into the enemy ranks, decimating them, and the second wave had to clamber over the broken bodies of the first. The second wave smashed into the Roman lines, and the legionaries fought with grim skill. Their short swords were perfect for close quarter combat, and they made quick work of the untrained Britons. The Romans pressed against the attack, advancing in a wedge formation. The cavalry, with their lances extended, entered the fray on the wings. Seeing that they were outmatched even against inferior numbers, the Britons panicked and broke—but they were ensnared, and of their own doing. They had placed their families and camp followers in a crescent of wagons around the far edge of the battlefield, impeding their own retreat. The Romans gave chase, slaughtering all they came across.

Tacitus reports that 80,000 Britons died in the Battle of Watling Street, compared to a mere 400 Romans. His numbers are likely exaggerated, but the Britons nevertheless suffered overwhelming losses and dispersed in the wake of their tragic defeat. Boudica either killed herself to avoid capture or died of an illness (Tacitus and Dio differ), and hearing news of the Roman victory, Postumus, the prefect of the Second Legion who had refused to come out and help Paulinus, was overcome with shame for not taking part and fell on his own sword. Nero had considered withdrawing Roman legions from Britain, but reports of Plautius’ victory made him change his mind. The decimation of Boudica’s forces brought a grisly end to her rebellion. The cities would be rebuilt and Rome’s foothold would grow ever stronger. Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who had served on Plautius’ staff and fought in the Battle of Watling Street, would soon yet again prove his worth to Roman Britain. 

Roman Britain: Claudius' Invasion of Britain (AD 43-60)

An Unopposed Landing – The Battle of the Medway – Crossing the Thames – The Capture of Camulodunum – The Pacification of Britain – The Battle of Caer Cadoc – The Subjugation of Wales – The Menai Massacre – The Eve of Boudicca’s Revolt

The Tribes of Britain, ca AD 40

In the wake of Julius Caesar’s two failed invasions of Britain, more Roman rulers had their eyes set on the island. Augustus planned three invasions of Britain; two were called off because the allotted troops were needed elsewhere, and the third was cancelled because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. Ancient sources tell us that two British kings fled to Rome to curry favor with Augustus, and Roman economists determined that Rome made more money off customs and duties from Britain than they would from taxation if Britain were captured. By the 40s AD, the political situation in Rome was marked my turmoil: the Trinovantes, who had been restored by Caesar, had once more fallen under the heel of the Catuvellauni. The Catuvellauni captured the Trinovantian capital, Camulodunum (modern-day Colchester) and had set their teeth against the Atrebates, who were ruled by descendants of Rome’s former ally, Commius. Emperor Caligula planned an invasion in AD 40, but he was content to simply march his troops to the coast and have them collect seashells as “plunder from the ocean.” In AD 43, Caligula’s successor, Claudius, planned an invasion—and his would have more mettle to it.

Verica, former king of the Roman-friendly Atrebates, had been sent into exile. The Catuvellauni, hostile to Rome, were building a British kingdom. Claudius determined to invade the island and reinstate Verica on the Atrebatian throne. A notable senator named Aulus Plautius was given command of four legions totaling close to 20,000 men; the same number of auxiliaries bolstered the Roman forces to around 40,000. The four legions were the II Augusta, IX Hispana, XIV Gemina, and the XX Legion. The forces sailed across the Channel in three divisions and landed on the British coast (the landing sites are disputed by modern historians, though landings in Kent and Southampton are preferred). British opposition was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of Cunobeline, the late king of the Catuvellauni. Aulus Plautius abandoned the beachhead and aimed his forces for Camulodunum.

The Hero Caratacus Rallying the British Locals

The first pitched battle against the Roman invaders took place at a river crossing, likely on the River Medway. The British had fortified the crossing and were formed up on the opposite bank to oppose the Romans as they waded across. Specially-trained Roman soldiers crossed the river farther upstream and attacked the British charioteers from their flank; at the same time, legionaries pushed through the river for a frontal attack against the British troops. The flanking maneuver caught the British by surprise, but it didn’t break them, and by the end of the day’s fighting, the Romans hadn’t pushed the British back. On the second day, Gnaeus Geta led a daring attack and was nearly captured; he rallied his troops, however, and put the British to flight. Geta was awarded a triumph for the victory, a rare award for someone of Geta’s social standing. Thus the Battle of the Medway had been won, the British were put to flight, and Rome continued its advance towards Camulodunum. Only one more river crossing lie in their path, that of the Thames (on which modern London now rests).

Roman Troops on the March

British forces harassed the Romans on their march. The British, knowing how to skirmish in the swampy marshes around Essex, wreaked havoc on the Roman columns. The British had been severely whipped at the Battle of Medway, however, and were unable to put up any staunch resistance at the Thames. The Romans crossed the river (whether they built a bridge or used pontoons is unknown, but at least one group of Batavian auxiliaries swam across like it was nothing), and Plautius sent word for Claudius to join him for the final assault. Since this was Claudius’ operation, after all, it made sense for him to be present in the forthcoming Roman victory. Claudius showed up with shock and awe, bringing with him a number of fierce war elephants to strike fear in the heart of the British resistance. The Roman troops continued their march on Camulodunum, and the British—made ragged by their bloodying at the Medway and outdone by the Roman war elephants—promptly surrendered without resorting to futile bloodshed. Eleven British tribes submitted to Rome, and Claudius made Camulodunum the Roman base of operations for the further stages of the conquest. Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory; Togodumnus had been slain, probably at the Medway; and Caratacus had escaped to fight another day.

Vespasian Subduing Southwest Britain

Having secured Camulodunum and broken the back of the Catuvellaunian resistance, Plautius went about orchestrating the next steps of the invasion. The future emperor Vespasian commander the II Augusta legion, and Plautius sent him west to subdue any rebellious tribes. The II Augusta fought a series of battles and captured the Iron Age fort of Oppidium before reaching Exeter and establishing a semi-permanent base. The IX Hispana headed north, encamping at modern-day Lincoln. The Romans, though met with hostility, triumphed. Caratacus, however, hadn’t given up, and he remained a thorn in their sides. In AD 47 Plautius ceded his governorship to Publius Ostorius Scapula, who set about doing what Plautius had failed to do: bringing Caratacus to Roman justice.

Caratacus led a force of Britons composed mainly of warriors from the tribes of the Ordovices and Silures. He begged the Romans to attack him on a ragged hilltop; where the slope was shallow, he fortified it with stone bulwarks staffed by picked warriors. The Romans had to cross the Severn River before making an attack on the hilltop. Scapula was hesitant to assault, since the steep slopes would be difficult for the Roman legionaries, and he didn’t like giving the enemy the advantage of height. His troops were thirsting for a battle, however, and Scapula resigned to the fates. They crossed the river and marched on the fortified hill. The Roman troops approached in testudo formation, with their fronts, sides, and heads covered by raised shields, to protect them from enemy missile fire. They attacked the stone bulwarks, slaying their defenders and disassembling them, and then they pushed up onto the hill to engage in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting against Caratacus’ forces. The British troops broke and fled down the opposite side of the hill, but there they were cornered by Scapula’s auxiliaries. Caratacus escaped, but his family was captured.

The Battle of Caer Caradoc spelled the end of Caratacus’ rebellion, and he fled to the nearby tribe of the Brigantes, who were a client-kingdom to Rome. The Queen of the Brigantes, Cartimandua, was unwilling (or, at least, unable) to give him sanctuary due to her submission to Rome. She handed him over to the Romans, and he was transported across the Channel to Rome to be sentenced to death and made a public spectacle before the Roman masses. At the last moment he made an inspiring plea before Claudius, asking him if his fame wouldn’t be greater if he showed mercy, and Claudius denied the execution and had Caratacus imprisoned for the rest of his life. Back in Britain, the loss of Caratacus had ripped the spine out of much local resistance.

The Menai Massacre

Scapula died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus, who continued Scapula’s campaigns against the rebellious Silures. He pacified the Welsh borders but didn’t press any further. In AD 54 Emperor Claudius died to be replaced by Emperor Nero. Nero replaced Gallus with Quintus Veranius, who had shown himself adept at dealing with local insurgencies in Anatolia. Veranius, and his successor Gaius Seutonius Paulinus, picked up where Gallus had left off, pushing deeper into Wales. In AD 60 they marched on the island of Anglesey, the stronghold of the Druidic resistance, and massacred each and every Druid to a man in what would be known by historians as the Menai Massacre. The historian Tacitus tells us of the massacre:

"[Paulinus] prepared to attack the island of Mona which had a powerful population and was a refuge for fugitives. He built flat-bottomed vessels to cope with the shallows, and uncertain depths of the sea. Thus the infantry crossed, while the cavalry followed by fording, or, where the water was deep, swam by the side of their horses. On the shore stood the opposing army with its dense array of armed warriors, while between the ranks dashed women, in black attire like the Furies, with hair disheveled, waving brands. All around, the Druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pouring forth dreadful imprecations, scared our soldiers by the unfamiliar sight, so that, as if their limbs were paralyzed, they stood motionless, and exposed to wounds. Then urged by their general’s appeals and mutual encouragement not to quail before a troop of frenzied women, they bore the standards onwards, smote down all resistance, and wrapped the foe in the flames of his own brands. A force was next set over the conquered, and their groves, devoted to inhuman superstitions, were destroyed. They deemed it indeed a duty to cover their altars with the blood of captives and to consult their deities through human entrails."

The campaign against the Druids on modern Anglesey had ended in a smashing victory for Rome, but unbeknownst to the victors, things were getting hairy in the south: Roman savagery had prompted what would come to be known as “Boudicca’s Rebellion.” Boudicca, an enraged Queen of the Iceni, would shatter Roman confidence in Britain.

Roman Britain: Caesar's Invasions (55-54 BC)

The White Cliffs of Dover - The Battle on the Beachhead - The Wreck of the Fleet -

Retreat to Gaul - An Unopposed Landing - The Fight on the Stour River -

The Crossing of the Thames - A Deal with the Trinovantes - The Surrender 

of Cassivellaunus - Caesar's Triumphant Evacuation of Britain

Julius Caesar is known for his “Gallic Wars” (his wars against the native tribes of what is modern-day France and Belgium), but lesser known are his two failed invasions of Britain. Perhaps they’re lesser known because they were failures, though Caesar made them into “explorations” when it came to his expertly-woven self-propagandizing. As a pretense for his first invasion, Caesar claimed that Britons had assisted the Gauls by giving them refuge in Britain and by assisting the Veneti of Armorica (modern-day Brittany) against him. Caesar began planning his first invasion in the summer of 55 BC. The British tribes got wind of it and sent delegates to Gaul to promise their submission. Caesar accepted their submission and sent them back across the Channel with the king of the Gallic Atrebates tribe, Commius, in the hope that he could win over further tribes to the Roman cause.

Roman troops approach the beachhead

In August of 55 BC Caesar set out with two legions (Legio VII and Legio X) with his cavalry instructed to follow after them. Caesar had wanted to land along the modern-day White Cliffs of Dover, but when his fleet came into sight of the cliffs, they saw Briton warriors amassed upon them; fearing that the Britons would rain missiles on his troops, he sailed seven miles along the coast to an open beach. The British forces had tracked their route from the cliffs, and Caesar’s landing was opposed by British foot soldiers and charioteers. Because the Roman transports were too low in the water to reach the shore, the Roman soldiers had to wade onto dry land. The British fought against the troops while they were in the water, but Roman catapults and slings, fired from the warships, pushed the British back. The Romans were able to take the beachhead, and the British scattered inland; but because Caesar’s cavalry had yet to arrive, the enemy’s retreat couldn’t be turned into a rout.

Romans fighting offshore against the Britons

Caesar built a camp on the beach and welcomed delegates from the British tribes. Commius, who had been imprisoned upon his arrival to Britain, was returned to him. The British leaders insisted that Caesar’s beachfront battle had been due to the spirit of the commoners rather than from their leadership, and the leaders offered Caesar hostages and disbanded their own troops. Caesar’s fortunes turned, however, when the high tide (which was altogether different from Mediterranean tides), coupled with an awful storm, sank or crippled a number of his transport ships at anchor off the beach. The British realized Caesar was at a disadvantage, since his return journey to Gaul was threatened, and they reinitiated their attacks, hoping to weaken and starve him out during the coming winter. British warriors ambushed one of the legions as it foraged close to the Roman camp. The ambushed troops were relieved by their brethren from the Roman camp, but the British amassed a larger force and attacked again. This time the British fared far worse, for the Romans had gathered a ragtag force of cavalry thanks to Commius’ conniving with pro-Roman Britons and horses stolen from the local countryside, and the British, bloodied and beaten, fell back. The British leaders sent more delegates and Caesar demanded double the number of hostages, but he knew that if he couldn’t get out by winter, his army would be doomed to a harsh winter of guerrilla warfare and starvation. Patching the wrecked and flooded ships as best he could, Caesar abandoned his camp and returned to Gaul.

Caesar wasn’t one to give up easily, and he planned a second invasion with a much larger force: five legions instead of two, plus a contingent of over 2000 cavalry. He also ordered construction of a different type of vessel more suitable for beach landing, copying the technology of the Veneti whose naval vessels were designed for the choppy and unpredictable seas of the Channel. Caesar’s landing was unopposed, perhaps because the Britons feared the size of Caesar’s fleet. Immediately after landing Caesar ordered a night march and took a large force twelve miles inland where they made their first contact with the enemy at a river crossing, probably on the Stour River. The Britons were repulsed and fled to a nearby hill-fort. Caesar defeated them there, too, but now it was late the next day and he ordered a camp to be built.

Roman troops versus Briton warriors

Next morning Caesar received news from the beachfront camp that another storm had struck and damaged a number of his transports. Caesar turned his force around and marched them back to the beachhead. Ten days and nights were spent both repairing the damaged vessels and fortifying the beachfront camp. He requested more ships from Gaul and marched back to the Stour River, where the Britons had amassed themselves once again to thwart his river crossing. The Britons were led by a warlord named Cassivellaunus, who hailed from north of the Thames; Cassivellaunus had been at war with a number of British tribes for some time, but he had recently overthrown his chief rival, the Trinovantes, and the Britons had appointed him as their leader against the Romans. The Britons waged a number of indecisive skirmishes, and Cassivellaunus knew they lacked the prowess to defeat the professional Roman soldiers in a pitched set-piece battle. He disbanded most of his forces and relied on the mobility of his 4000 charioteers for strike-and-run tactics against the Romans, who were steadily advancing towards the Thames River. When Caesar reached the Thames, the one possible fording spot had been defended with sharpened stakes, and British warriors crowded the far bank. Legend has it that Caesar employed a war elephant equipped with armor and topped with archers and slingers in its tower to frighten the British away from the crossing. When the elephant, formerly unknown to the British, entered the river, the British horses panicked and the foot soldiers followed suit. The Romans then crossed the Thames and entered Cassivellaunus’ territory.

A Rendition of Cassivellaunus

Now politics played in the Romans’ favor. The Trinovantes, formerly known as the most powerful of British chiefdoms, had been humiliated by Cassivellaunus, and the Trinovantes’ ruler, Mandubracius, had been sent into exile. Mandubracius curried favor with Caesar, promising submission to Rome, if he would help him against Cassivellaunus. Caesar agreed, restoring Mandubracius to the Trinovantian throne. The Trinovantes, in return, provided Caesar’s forces with much-needed grain. Following the example of the Trinovantes, five further British tribes—the Cenimagni, Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci, and Cassi—surrendered to Caesar and fed him information about Cassivellaunus’ whereabouts. Caesar marched on Cassivellaunus’ stronghold and laid siege. Cassivellaunus’ allies staged a diversionary attack on the beachhead to pull Caesar away from the stronghold, but the attack failed. Cassivellaunus was left only with the hope of diplomacy, and Caesar took the bait, eager to return to Gaul before the coming winter. Cassivellaunus surrendered, giving hostages, agreeing to an annual tribute, and promising not to wage war against Mandubracius of the Trinovantes. Caesar then left Britain, taking every Roman soldier with him, and it’s unknown if Cassivellaunus ever kept his word on his promises to Caesar. 

Roman Britain: A Chronology

Remnants of Hadrian's Wall

CAESAR’S “EXPLORATIONS” OF BRITAIN 

Caesar's First Taste of Britain

55 BC – Julius Caesar makes his first unsuccessful foray into Britain. He has met his match against the Briton warriors, and he hastily leaves Britain. 

54 BC – Julius Caesar launches his second unsuccessful foray into Britain. Though he only fights a few skirmishes, he introduces the Roman world to the Iron Age tribes of Britain, inaugurating an era of diplomatic dealings with the tribes and the beginning of Roman influence in Britain. 

THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. 

The Battle of the Thames

AD 43 – Verica of the Atrebates is ousted, and he seeks help from Rome. This gives the new emperor, CLAUDIUS, a pretext for a British invasion. If he is able to conquer Britain, he will bolster his reputation and support among the Roman elite. The invasion (with likely around 40,000 troops) is tasked to Aulus Plautius, who leads the invasion and becomes Britain’s first Roman governor. He conquers southern Britain, defeating the tribal leaders Togodumnus and Caratacus and arranges a triumphal march into Colchester for Claudius. The II Augusta legion heads for southwest Britain, the IX Hispana heads north, and the XIV Gemina heads west. The XX legion is stationed at Colchester. 

AD 47-62 – Publius Ostorius Scapula becomes governor. Colchester becomes the first “colony” (a place for veteran troops to settle after their service with the legions ends) and the XX legion heads west. Scapula marches against the tribes in South Wales and defeats a rebellion by the Iceni tribe in East Anglia. 

AD 52-59 – Audlus Didius Gallus becomes governor. He restrains the Welsh tribes, and in the north the tribe of Brigantes, Rome’s allies, is split between king Venutius and his queen, Cartimandua. NERO (r. 54-68) becomes emperor. Gallus is replaced by Quintus Veranius Nepos as governor, but Nepos dies in post (57-58). Gaius Seutonius Paullinus becomes the new governor and sets his eyes on the Druid stronghold in Anglesey, the HQ of the native resistance to Rome. 

The Boudiccan Revolt

AD 60-61 – Paullinus marches against the Druids at Anglesey, wiping them completely out. His absence (and the absence of the forces under his command) opens the door for the revolt of the Iceni, and some of the Trinovantes, under the leadership of Boudica, who had been cheated and raped by the Romans. Boudica’s ragtag forces lay waste to Roman Britain, cutting a swathe of devastation through Roman territory, defeating part of the IX Hispana and burning Colchester, London, and St. Albans. Paullinus marches back from Anglesey and sets his teeth against the revolt, wiping out Boudica and extinguishing the tribal revolt not with diplomacy but with the sword. Paullinus keeps the Roman army mobile and garrisons the south, meanwhile initiating a punitive policy against the tribes to keep them in check. He’s resisted by the new procurator, Gaius Julius Aplinus Classicianus, who prefers mending fences and using diplomacy to rebuild Roman Britain. When Paullinus is embarrassed by the loss of a Roman naval force, Classicianus uses this as a pretext to oust him as governor. He’s replaced by Publius Petronius Turpilianus, who sets about repairing the damage in Britain and reforming Roman British government. 

AD 63-69 – Marcus Trebellius Maximus becomes the new governor and faces a mutiny by the XX legion. In AD 68 Emperor Nero commits suicide and civil war breaks out in Rome. GALBA (r. 68-69) rules briefly, and Maximus likely fled Britain to side with VITELLIUS in the civil war. Vitellius becomes emperor in the wake of Galba, but he’s replaced by VESPASIAN (r. 69-79). 

AD 69-71 – Emperor Vespasian is able to hold onto power in Rome, and he establishes the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian had led the II Augusta in Claudius’ invasion of Britain in AD 43 and courts favor with the Roman troops stationed on the island. Marcus Vettius Bolanus is appointed governor in Britain, and he rescues Cartimandua from the Brigantian feud, drawing the Brigantes into the Roman fold. 

AD 71-74 – Quintus Petillius Cerealis becomes governor of Britain, and he annexes much of what is now northern England. He likely founded the legionary fortress of the IX Hispana at York. 

AD 74-78 – Sextus Julius Frontinus becomes governor, and he conquers the Silures in Wales. The spa at Bath (previously Aquae Sulis) is under construction; Frontinus has a knack for plumbing, and thus he may have jump-started the Bath spa. He would later be put in charge of the aqueducts of Rome. 

Agricola in Caledonia

AD 78-84. Gnaeus Julius Agricola becomes governor. He finishes off Frontinus’ war against the Welsh, conquers northern Britain as far as the northeast tip of Caledonia (modern Scotland) and is the first to circumnavigate Britain, proving what everyone already knew: it truly was an island. He sponsors the proliferation of Roman building, such as public houses, temples, and Roman-style homes, and encourages the spread of the Latin language and literacy. Vespasian’s son TITUS (who made a name for himself in the sacking of Jerusalem in AD 70) becomes emperor in AD 79; his reign lasts until AD 81, when DOMITIAN (r. 81-96) takes the throne. Domitian recalls Agricola from Rome, and Rome abandons Agricola’s recently-won Caledonia and pulls the Roman troops back to northern England. 

AD 96-100 – Emperor NERVA (r. 96-98) replaces Domitian. Gloucester is officially founded as a colony under Nerva, but it likely happened unofficially under Domitian, whose achievements were either suppressed or stolen by his successors after his assassination. Lincoln was likely made a colony at this time, too. In AD 98 TRAJAN (98-117) takes Nerva’s place as Roman Emperor. 

THE SECOND CENTURY A.D. 

AD 108 – The IX Hispana disappears from Roman records. Though legend has it that the IX faced a mysterious disappearance, perhaps in an expedition gone horribly wrong, it is more likely that it was merely relocated (perhaps to the Continent or to the struggles in the East) and that records of its whereabouts have simply been lost to history. 

A Reconstruction of Hadrian's Wall

AD 117-130 – HADRIAN (r. 117-138) replaces Trajan as Roman Emperor. In AD 119 Hadrian visits Britain and commissions the building of “Hadrian’s Wall”. He tasks the British governor, Aulus Platorius Nepos, with its construction. Though legend has it that the wall was built to mark the extant of Roman Britain and to keep out the barbarians, its main purpose was likely economic: not only would it stimulate the Romano-British economy (as one part of many in public works), but the multiple guarded entrances and exits seem designed to enforce taxation. The wall not only “garrisoned” the frontier but made sure that anyone traveling north-south through it paid their due taxes. Hadrian commissioned other public works, such as the great basilica of London. Numerous towns, roads, markets, villages, farmsteads, and pottery industries sprang up in southern Britain. The north and west of Roman Britain are turned into a military zone with three legionary fortresses: the II Augusta stationed at Caerleon, XX Veleria Victrix (so-named after its victory against Boudica in AD 61) at Chester, and the VI Victrix at York. In AD 129-130, the forum and basilica at Wroxeter are dedicated. 

AD 138 – ANTONINUS PIUS (r. 138-161) replaces Hadrian as Roman Emperor. He fights a war in Britain and adds a new wall of turf (known as the Antonine Wall) to be built further north (roughly between modern Glasgow and Edinburgh) by his governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus. The Antonine Wall is garrisoned as the furthest line of Roman Britain, and the garrisoning of Hadrian’s Wall becomes minimal. 

AD 161-163 – MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161-180) replaces Antoninus Pius as Roman Emperor. War breaks out yet again in northern Britain. The British governor, Sextus Agricola, wages war against the Britons. Hadrian’s Wall is reoccupied and the Antonine Wall abandoned. In the AD 170s, Aurelius creates an alliance with the Sarmatians, and they give him 8000 cavalry, 5,500 of which he sends to Britain. Whether they are sent to Britain to bolster the garrisons or to train in the safety of isolation is unknown. 

British tribes assaulting Hadrian's Wall

AD 180-184. COMMODUS (r. 180-192) replaces his father as Roman Emperor. In AD 184 British tribes cross Hadrian’s Wall from Caledonia and defeat a contingent of legionaries. The garrison of Britain, enraged by the way Commodus has delegated his power to his praetorian prefect, Perennius, elect one of their own, a certain Priscus, as emperor. Priscus, however, doesn’t feel up to the task, and the garrison sends a 1500-strong delegation to Rome. Terrified at the prospect of an armed rebellion within the walls of the city of Rome, Commodus throws his praetorian prefect “under the cart” and has him lynched to appease the disgruntled legionaries. He sends Pertinax to Britain to get a handle on the situation, but Pertinax makes things worse and the Roman troops on the island mutiny. Pertinax flees back to Rome. 

AD 192-197 – Commodus is murdered at the tail-end of AD 192. PERTINAX replaces Commodus, but only for a spell: he’s murdered only 86 days after his coronation. He is followed by DIDIUS JULIANUS, who lasts only 66 days. The new British governor, Claudius Albinus, is a candidate for emperor. In the East, Pescennius Niger is proclaimed emperor. Septimius Severus convinces Albinus that the two of them should work together: Severus will become emperor, and when he dies, Albinus will replace him. Having settled things with Albinus in the west, Severus turns east and crushes Niger. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (r. 193-211) takes up the mantle as emperor, but within two years Albinus realizes he’s been duped when Severus declares Albinus to be a “public enemy of Rome.” Albinus gathers together much of Britain’s Roman garrison and crosses the Channel into Gaul to meet Severus in battle. In AD 197, near Lyons, Albinus and his forces are defeated by Severus’ army. Severus reigns supreme over Rome. 

AD 197 - Severus divides Britain two provinces, each run by its own governor, to prevent further island-wide rebellions that produced the like of Albinus: Britannia Superior is in the south and ruled from London, and Britannia Inferior is in the north and ruled from York. 

THE THIRD CENTURY A.D. 

AD 205-208 – The third century begins with a wave of military rebuilding in northern Britain. In AD 208 Septimius Severus arrives in Britain to launch the reconquest of Caledonia with his two sons, Caracalla and Geta. The campaign is inconclusive. 

A Reconstruction of Roman London

AD 211 – Septimius Severus dies of exhaustion at York. His death leaves the Empire being co-ruled by his surviving sons Caracalla and Geta. CARACALLA abandons military operations in Caledonia and murders his brother Geta (r. 211-212) to become sole emperor of Rome (r. 211-217). Caracalla makes history books by opening up Roman citizenship to people living within the parameters of Rome, and he embarks on a number of military campaigns in northern Germany and in the East. While Caracalla wages war elsewhere, Britain is quiet and undergoes a vast amount of military rebuilding on the northern frontier. In southern Roman Britain, the rich are beginning to spend money on themselves, and the villas of the southern lowlands begin their slow climb to wealth and greatness.

AD 259-273 – In AD 259 Postumus (r. 260-269) seizes control of Britain, Gaul, and Germany to create the Gallic Empire. The Gallic Empire stands against the wider Roman Empire. The Gallic Empire passes through a series of rulers—Marius, Victorinus, and Tetricus—while trying to survive against the loathing of the wider Roman Empire. AURELIAN (r. 270-275) of Rome puts an end to the Gallic Empire, incorporating Britain, Gaul, and Germany back into the fold of the Roman Empire.  

AD 275-286 – The Roman Empire undergoes a series of emperors whose ends come at the end of assassination. The series ends with the accession of DIOCLETIAN in AD 284. Diocletian recognizes that the Roman Empire is too large to be ruled by one man, and he divides it into two parts (West and East).. Diocletian takes control of the East and places MAXIMIAN (r. 286-305) over the West. 

Constantius I Squashes Allectus

AD 286-296 – Carausius, commander of the Romano-British fleet, seizes control in Britain and part of northern Gaul. He proclaims himself emperor of the first “British Empire.” Carausius is murdered in AD 293 by Allectus, his head of finance. Allectus takes control of the so-called British Empire and invites barbarians to serve as his personal bodyguard and as his auxiliary troops, much to the dismay of the Romans in Britain. From Rome Diocletian inaugurates the “Tetrarchy” by appointing junior partners (known as “Caesars”) to assist with ruling the East and West: Galerius serves under Diocletian in the East and Constantius I serves under Maximian in the West. Diocletian and Maximian are known as the “Augustans.” Constantius I spearheads the retaking of Britain, and in AD 296 he routs Allectus’ largely barbarian forces and Allectus falls to the sword. The “British Empire” comes to an end, incorporated into the fold of the Western Empire under Maximian and Constantius I.  

THE FOURTH CENTURY A.D. 

AD 300 – By the turn of the 4th century, Britain has gone from two provinces (Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior) to four provinces. The former titles were abandoned, and the four provinces included Maximia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, and Flavia Caesariensis. The fourth century would be the “Golden Age” of Roman Britain: the accumulation of wealth and the rise of the southern villas that began after the Age of Severus reaches its zenith. 

AD 305-327 – Emperors Diocletian and Maximian abdicate to their Caesars. Constantius I (r. 305-306) becomes Emperor of the West with Severus II (r. 306-307) as his Caesar. When Constantius I dies, the city of York rejects the accession of Severus II by proclaiming Constantius I’s son, CONSTANTINE I, as emperor. The House of Constantine and the House of Maximian feud for control of the West, and in AD 312 Constantine defeats his rival Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, using troops partly raised in Britain. The West falls under exclusive control of Constantine. In AD 313 Constantine makes the Edict of Milan, which doesn’t make Christianity the empire’s official religion (a popular misunderstanding) but, rather, makes religious toleration a facet of the empire. Constantine defeats Licinius, the ruler of the East, in AD 327, bringing Diocletian’s division of the empire to an end and consolidating the West and East under his control. 

Pictish Warriors

AD 337-340 – After Constantine’s death, control of the empire passes to his sons: Constantine II (r. 337-340) rules Britain, Gaul, and Spain; Constantius II (r. 337-361) rules in the East; and Constans (r. 337-350) rules Italy, Africa, and Central Europe. In AD 340 Constans murders his brother, Constantine II, and Britain passes into Constans’ control. In the following years Britain changes hands a number of times as men struggle against one another to rule the empire. 

AD 367 – The “Barbarian Conspiracy” overruns Britain: Picts and Scots laid waste to Roman Britain from the north, and Franks and Saxons launched raids into Gaul. The Western Roman Empire is ruled by Gratian and Valentinian I, and they send Theodosius to Britain to take charge of her defenses against the Picts and Scots. 

THE FIFTH CENTURY A.D.

AD 407-411 – The imperial “hunger games” continue throughout the Empire while Roman Britain faces off against growing pressures from the Picts and Scots to the north and the Franks and Saxons across the German Sea. In AD 407 Constantine III of Britain proclaims himself Emperor and moves to Gaul, taking much of what was left of Britain’s already malnourished garrison. Constantine III takes Spain in AD 408, and the Western Emperor, HONORIUS (r. 395-423), responds to pleas for assistance from the weakened Britain by telling them, “Sorry, can’t help, look to your own defenses against the barbarians.” Constantine III meets his match and is defeated in AD 411. 

 AD 429 – As barbarian hordes continue to harass Britain, St. Germanus of Auxerre arrives in Britain not to fight against the barbarians but to fight against the Pelagian Heresy. 

Anglo-Saxon Warriors

AD 449 – This is the reported date of the Anglo-Saxon Invasion, when the raids from across the Channel become invasions with consequent settlements. Roman Britain no longer exists. Roman towns fall into disrepair and the villas are slowly abandoned. This is the age of the mythical “King Arthur” who stands against the Anglo-Saxon hordes, but Britain’s fate is sealed: soon the Angles, with their own name for their British territory—“Aengland”—will become the dominant force on the island until the Norman Invasion five centuries later. 

2017: Resolutions

As is customary with the turn of a new year, I've put a lot of thought into 2017's resolutions. 2016's resolutions were hit-and-miss (though more miss). My first resolution was to read lots of fiction, and that's one I accomplished. The second resolution was to finish two novels; I finished The Procyon Strain: Book Two but didn't get farther than that. Resolution #3 was to bring the blog back; but because of extenuating circumstances (i.e. the need for privacy from prying eyes belonging not to anyone in Wisconsin but much closer to home), the blog will remain private (at least for a while). Now on to 2017's trifecta of resolutions!

School. Although it wasn't a 2016 Resolution, I finally started back to school for teaching history. I've almost gotten two classes under my belt (Western Civilization 1 & 2), and this year I want to bring that number up to 5 (the Western Civ classes plus American History 1 & 2 and American Government). Finding time to sit down and study is more of a chore than it has ever been, given that I'm married, have two daughters, working a shit ton of hours, and dealing with bucket-loads of stress. 2017 will prove to be challenging in a lot of ways, but I'm hoping to make progress with school regardless.

Writing. After 36 Hours, the Dwellers of the Night Trilogy, and the first two installments of The Procyon Strain Saga, I'm pretty burnt out on zombies. I have a lot of ideas for writing (both fiction and non-fiction), but the goal is to crank out at least two works (neither being over 300 pages).

Reading. Last year I read 102 books. I became diligent about reading an hour a day sometime in August, and it's been insane how much I've been able to read. The benefits of reading for at least an hour a day have been widely studied and praised, and I'm determined to continue with this discipline throughout 2017. Most of my reading this year will be framed around British history (from the Prehistoric Era to the Napoleonic Era), with some miscellaneous reading scattered here-and-there. As I go through British history, there are several "side studies" that branch off the main thread (e.g. the Crusades and the Hundred Years War). I would like to choose a subject (or three) each year on which to focus my reading, and British history is a good place to start. I'm eager to supplement the nonfiction with historical fiction by such esteemed authors as Bernard Cornwell (one of my new favorites), Simon Scarrow, Harry Sidebottom, and Patrick O'Brien. 

Here's to 2017! 

books read: 2016

this year's tally: 102 books
(that's 1.96 per week)

~ Science & Spirituality ~

Science Books... and Dinosaurs!
  The Crucible of Creation (Simon Conway-Morris)

  Life (Richard Fortey)

  Dinosaurs: The Grand Tour (Keiron Pim)

  The Complete Dinosaur (Michael K. Brett-Surman)

  Dinosaur Odyssey: Fossil Threads in the Web of Life (Scott D. Sampson)

  The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs (Gregory S. Paul)

  Predatory Dinosaurs of the World (Paul)

  Dinosaurs: A Concise Natural History (David E. Fastovsky)
Religious Books
  The Comeback (Louie Giglio)
  Life After Death & Modern Day Miracles (James Cook)
  The Grand Weaver (Ravi Zacharias)
  Why Suffering? (Zacharias)
  Has Christianity Failed You? (Zacharias)
  The End of Reason (Zacharias)

~ History Books ~

The Ancient World
  Almanac of World History (Daniels & Hyslop)
  The Hittites (Henry Freman)
  The Gallic Wars (Julius Caesar)
  Agricola (Tacitus)
  Germania (Tacitus)
  The Rise of the Roman Empire (Polybius)
  Caesar's Gallic Wars (Kate Gilliver)
  In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won The Empire (Adrian Goldsworthy)
  The Rise of Rome (Anthony Everitt)
  Ancient Rome (Simon Baker)
  Chronicles of the Ancient World (John Haywood)
The Middle Ages
  The Middle Ages: A History (Freeman)
  Atlas of Ancient and Medieval Warfare (Arthur Banks)
  A Short History of Medieval Europe (Oliver Thatcher)
  The Middle Ages (Miri Rubin)
  The Medieval Scene: England in the Middle Ages (R.J. Unstead)
  The Art of War in the Middle Ages (Charles Oman)
  Medieval Warfare (H. W. Koch)
  The Medieval Warrior (Martin Dougherty)
  The Crusades (Mark Black)
  The Black Death (Freeman)
  A History of the Hundred Years War (Ephraim Emerton)
  The Hundred Years War (Charles River Edison)
  A History of the Hundred Years War (Alice Minerva Atkinson)
  A Concise History of the Vikings (Freeman)
  The Ottoman Empire: From Beginning to End (Stephan Weaver)
  A Short History of England and Wales (Mary Platt Parmele)
  A Short History Ireland (Parmele)
  A Short History of Scotland (Parmele)
  A Short History of Germany (Parmele)
  A Short History of France (Parmele)
The Modern World
  The French Revolution (Freeman)
  The French Revolution (William Doyle)
  Napoleon: A Life From Beginning to End (Freeman)
  Guts & Glory: The American Civil War (Ben Thompson)
  The American Civil War (John Keegan)
  The War to End All Wars: World War One (Russell Freedman)
  World War One in 50 Events (James Weber)
  The Western Experience, Volume One (Mortimer Chambers, et. al.)
  The Western Experience, Volume Two (Chambers, et. al.)

~ Fiction & Literature ~

Historical Fiction of Ancient & Medieval Britain
  Prehistoric Britain 
    Stonehenge (Bernard Cornwell)
  Roman Britain
    The Eagle of the Ninth (Rosemary Sutcliff)
    The Silver Branch (Sutcliff)
    The Lantern Bearers (Sutcliff)
  Anglo-Saxon Britain
    The Winter King (Cornwell)
    Enemy of God (Cornwell)
    Excalibur (Cornwell)
  The Hundred Years War
    An Archer's Tale (Cornwell)
    Vagabond (Cornwell)
    Heretic (Cornwell)
    1356 (Cornwell)
    Agincourt (Cornwell)
Historical Fiction of the American Revolution
  Rise to Rebellion (Jeff Shaara)

  The Glorious Cause (Shaara)

  Patrick Henry and the Frigate's Keel (Howard Fast)

  The Hessian (Fast)

  April Morning (Fast)

  Seven Days in June (Fast)

  Conceived in Liberty: A Novel of Valley Forge (Fast)

  The Crossing (Fast)

  The Fort (Bernard Cornwell)

  Redcoat (Cornwell)

Legal Yarns by John Grisham
  Rogue Lawyer
  The Testament
  A Time to Kill
  Sycamore Row
  The Summons
  The Firm
  The Pelican Brief
Works by Michael Crichton
  Rising Sun
  Disclosure
  Timeline
  Micro
Independence Day Saga
  Silent Zone (Stephen Molstad)
  Independence Day (Molstad, et. al.)
  War in the Desert (Molstad)
  Crucible (Greg Keyes)
  Independence Day: Resurgence (Alex Irvine)
Star Wars Prequels
  Darth Plagueis (James Luceno)
  Cloak of Deception (Luceno)
  Episode One: The Phantom Menace (Terry Brooks)
  Episode Two: Attack of the Clones (R.A. Salvatore)
  Episode Three: Revenge of the Sith (Matthew Stover)
  Tarkin (Luceno)
  A New Dawn (John Jackson Miller)
  Star Wars: Complete Vehicles (DK Publishing)
  Star Wars: Complete Cross-Sections (Curtis Saxton & Kerrie Dougherty)
  Star Wars: The Ultimate Visual Guide (Ryder Windham)