Roman Britain: A Chronology

Remnants of Hadrian's Wall

CAESAR’S “EXPLORATIONS” OF BRITAIN 

Caesar's First Taste of Britain

55 BC – Julius Caesar makes his first unsuccessful foray into Britain. He has met his match against the Briton warriors, and he hastily leaves Britain. 

54 BC – Julius Caesar launches his second unsuccessful foray into Britain. Though he only fights a few skirmishes, he introduces the Roman world to the Iron Age tribes of Britain, inaugurating an era of diplomatic dealings with the tribes and the beginning of Roman influence in Britain. 

THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. 

The Battle of the Thames

AD 43 – Verica of the Atrebates is ousted, and he seeks help from Rome. This gives the new emperor, CLAUDIUS, a pretext for a British invasion. If he is able to conquer Britain, he will bolster his reputation and support among the Roman elite. The invasion (with likely around 40,000 troops) is tasked to Aulus Plautius, who leads the invasion and becomes Britain’s first Roman governor. He conquers southern Britain, defeating the tribal leaders Togodumnus and Caratacus and arranges a triumphal march into Colchester for Claudius. The II Augusta legion heads for southwest Britain, the IX Hispana heads north, and the XIV Gemina heads west. The XX legion is stationed at Colchester. 

AD 47-62 – Publius Ostorius Scapula becomes governor. Colchester becomes the first “colony” (a place for veteran troops to settle after their service with the legions ends) and the XX legion heads west. Scapula marches against the tribes in South Wales and defeats a rebellion by the Iceni tribe in East Anglia. 

AD 52-59 – Audlus Didius Gallus becomes governor. He restrains the Welsh tribes, and in the north the tribe of Brigantes, Rome’s allies, is split between king Venutius and his queen, Cartimandua. NERO (r. 54-68) becomes emperor. Gallus is replaced by Quintus Veranius Nepos as governor, but Nepos dies in post (57-58). Gaius Seutonius Paullinus becomes the new governor and sets his eyes on the Druid stronghold in Anglesey, the HQ of the native resistance to Rome. 

The Boudiccan Revolt

AD 60-61 – Paullinus marches against the Druids at Anglesey, wiping them completely out. His absence (and the absence of the forces under his command) opens the door for the revolt of the Iceni, and some of the Trinovantes, under the leadership of Boudica, who had been cheated and raped by the Romans. Boudica’s ragtag forces lay waste to Roman Britain, cutting a swathe of devastation through Roman territory, defeating part of the IX Hispana and burning Colchester, London, and St. Albans. Paullinus marches back from Anglesey and sets his teeth against the revolt, wiping out Boudica and extinguishing the tribal revolt not with diplomacy but with the sword. Paullinus keeps the Roman army mobile and garrisons the south, meanwhile initiating a punitive policy against the tribes to keep them in check. He’s resisted by the new procurator, Gaius Julius Aplinus Classicianus, who prefers mending fences and using diplomacy to rebuild Roman Britain. When Paullinus is embarrassed by the loss of a Roman naval force, Classicianus uses this as a pretext to oust him as governor. He’s replaced by Publius Petronius Turpilianus, who sets about repairing the damage in Britain and reforming Roman British government. 

AD 63-69 – Marcus Trebellius Maximus becomes the new governor and faces a mutiny by the XX legion. In AD 68 Emperor Nero commits suicide and civil war breaks out in Rome. GALBA (r. 68-69) rules briefly, and Maximus likely fled Britain to side with VITELLIUS in the civil war. Vitellius becomes emperor in the wake of Galba, but he’s replaced by VESPASIAN (r. 69-79). 

AD 69-71 – Emperor Vespasian is able to hold onto power in Rome, and he establishes the Flavian dynasty. Vespasian had led the II Augusta in Claudius’ invasion of Britain in AD 43 and courts favor with the Roman troops stationed on the island. Marcus Vettius Bolanus is appointed governor in Britain, and he rescues Cartimandua from the Brigantian feud, drawing the Brigantes into the Roman fold. 

AD 71-74 – Quintus Petillius Cerealis becomes governor of Britain, and he annexes much of what is now northern England. He likely founded the legionary fortress of the IX Hispana at York. 

AD 74-78 – Sextus Julius Frontinus becomes governor, and he conquers the Silures in Wales. The spa at Bath (previously Aquae Sulis) is under construction; Frontinus has a knack for plumbing, and thus he may have jump-started the Bath spa. He would later be put in charge of the aqueducts of Rome. 

Agricola in Caledonia

AD 78-84. Gnaeus Julius Agricola becomes governor. He finishes off Frontinus’ war against the Welsh, conquers northern Britain as far as the northeast tip of Caledonia (modern Scotland) and is the first to circumnavigate Britain, proving what everyone already knew: it truly was an island. He sponsors the proliferation of Roman building, such as public houses, temples, and Roman-style homes, and encourages the spread of the Latin language and literacy. Vespasian’s son TITUS (who made a name for himself in the sacking of Jerusalem in AD 70) becomes emperor in AD 79; his reign lasts until AD 81, when DOMITIAN (r. 81-96) takes the throne. Domitian recalls Agricola from Rome, and Rome abandons Agricola’s recently-won Caledonia and pulls the Roman troops back to northern England. 

AD 96-100 – Emperor NERVA (r. 96-98) replaces Domitian. Gloucester is officially founded as a colony under Nerva, but it likely happened unofficially under Domitian, whose achievements were either suppressed or stolen by his successors after his assassination. Lincoln was likely made a colony at this time, too. In AD 98 TRAJAN (98-117) takes Nerva’s place as Roman Emperor. 

THE SECOND CENTURY A.D. 

AD 108 – The IX Hispana disappears from Roman records. Though legend has it that the IX faced a mysterious disappearance, perhaps in an expedition gone horribly wrong, it is more likely that it was merely relocated (perhaps to the Continent or to the struggles in the East) and that records of its whereabouts have simply been lost to history. 

A Reconstruction of Hadrian's Wall

AD 117-130 – HADRIAN (r. 117-138) replaces Trajan as Roman Emperor. In AD 119 Hadrian visits Britain and commissions the building of “Hadrian’s Wall”. He tasks the British governor, Aulus Platorius Nepos, with its construction. Though legend has it that the wall was built to mark the extant of Roman Britain and to keep out the barbarians, its main purpose was likely economic: not only would it stimulate the Romano-British economy (as one part of many in public works), but the multiple guarded entrances and exits seem designed to enforce taxation. The wall not only “garrisoned” the frontier but made sure that anyone traveling north-south through it paid their due taxes. Hadrian commissioned other public works, such as the great basilica of London. Numerous towns, roads, markets, villages, farmsteads, and pottery industries sprang up in southern Britain. The north and west of Roman Britain are turned into a military zone with three legionary fortresses: the II Augusta stationed at Caerleon, XX Veleria Victrix (so-named after its victory against Boudica in AD 61) at Chester, and the VI Victrix at York. In AD 129-130, the forum and basilica at Wroxeter are dedicated. 

AD 138 – ANTONINUS PIUS (r. 138-161) replaces Hadrian as Roman Emperor. He fights a war in Britain and adds a new wall of turf (known as the Antonine Wall) to be built further north (roughly between modern Glasgow and Edinburgh) by his governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus. The Antonine Wall is garrisoned as the furthest line of Roman Britain, and the garrisoning of Hadrian’s Wall becomes minimal. 

AD 161-163 – MARCUS AURELIUS (r. 161-180) replaces Antoninus Pius as Roman Emperor. War breaks out yet again in northern Britain. The British governor, Sextus Agricola, wages war against the Britons. Hadrian’s Wall is reoccupied and the Antonine Wall abandoned. In the AD 170s, Aurelius creates an alliance with the Sarmatians, and they give him 8000 cavalry, 5,500 of which he sends to Britain. Whether they are sent to Britain to bolster the garrisons or to train in the safety of isolation is unknown. 

British tribes assaulting Hadrian's Wall

AD 180-184. COMMODUS (r. 180-192) replaces his father as Roman Emperor. In AD 184 British tribes cross Hadrian’s Wall from Caledonia and defeat a contingent of legionaries. The garrison of Britain, enraged by the way Commodus has delegated his power to his praetorian prefect, Perennius, elect one of their own, a certain Priscus, as emperor. Priscus, however, doesn’t feel up to the task, and the garrison sends a 1500-strong delegation to Rome. Terrified at the prospect of an armed rebellion within the walls of the city of Rome, Commodus throws his praetorian prefect “under the cart” and has him lynched to appease the disgruntled legionaries. He sends Pertinax to Britain to get a handle on the situation, but Pertinax makes things worse and the Roman troops on the island mutiny. Pertinax flees back to Rome. 

AD 192-197 – Commodus is murdered at the tail-end of AD 192. PERTINAX replaces Commodus, but only for a spell: he’s murdered only 86 days after his coronation. He is followed by DIDIUS JULIANUS, who lasts only 66 days. The new British governor, Claudius Albinus, is a candidate for emperor. In the East, Pescennius Niger is proclaimed emperor. Septimius Severus convinces Albinus that the two of them should work together: Severus will become emperor, and when he dies, Albinus will replace him. Having settled things with Albinus in the west, Severus turns east and crushes Niger. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (r. 193-211) takes up the mantle as emperor, but within two years Albinus realizes he’s been duped when Severus declares Albinus to be a “public enemy of Rome.” Albinus gathers together much of Britain’s Roman garrison and crosses the Channel into Gaul to meet Severus in battle. In AD 197, near Lyons, Albinus and his forces are defeated by Severus’ army. Severus reigns supreme over Rome. 

AD 197 - Severus divides Britain two provinces, each run by its own governor, to prevent further island-wide rebellions that produced the like of Albinus: Britannia Superior is in the south and ruled from London, and Britannia Inferior is in the north and ruled from York. 

THE THIRD CENTURY A.D. 

AD 205-208 – The third century begins with a wave of military rebuilding in northern Britain. In AD 208 Septimius Severus arrives in Britain to launch the reconquest of Caledonia with his two sons, Caracalla and Geta. The campaign is inconclusive. 

A Reconstruction of Roman London

AD 211 – Septimius Severus dies of exhaustion at York. His death leaves the Empire being co-ruled by his surviving sons Caracalla and Geta. CARACALLA abandons military operations in Caledonia and murders his brother Geta (r. 211-212) to become sole emperor of Rome (r. 211-217). Caracalla makes history books by opening up Roman citizenship to people living within the parameters of Rome, and he embarks on a number of military campaigns in northern Germany and in the East. While Caracalla wages war elsewhere, Britain is quiet and undergoes a vast amount of military rebuilding on the northern frontier. In southern Roman Britain, the rich are beginning to spend money on themselves, and the villas of the southern lowlands begin their slow climb to wealth and greatness.

AD 259-273 – In AD 259 Postumus (r. 260-269) seizes control of Britain, Gaul, and Germany to create the Gallic Empire. The Gallic Empire stands against the wider Roman Empire. The Gallic Empire passes through a series of rulers—Marius, Victorinus, and Tetricus—while trying to survive against the loathing of the wider Roman Empire. AURELIAN (r. 270-275) of Rome puts an end to the Gallic Empire, incorporating Britain, Gaul, and Germany back into the fold of the Roman Empire.  

AD 275-286 – The Roman Empire undergoes a series of emperors whose ends come at the end of assassination. The series ends with the accession of DIOCLETIAN in AD 284. Diocletian recognizes that the Roman Empire is too large to be ruled by one man, and he divides it into two parts (West and East).. Diocletian takes control of the East and places MAXIMIAN (r. 286-305) over the West. 

Constantius I Squashes Allectus

AD 286-296 – Carausius, commander of the Romano-British fleet, seizes control in Britain and part of northern Gaul. He proclaims himself emperor of the first “British Empire.” Carausius is murdered in AD 293 by Allectus, his head of finance. Allectus takes control of the so-called British Empire and invites barbarians to serve as his personal bodyguard and as his auxiliary troops, much to the dismay of the Romans in Britain. From Rome Diocletian inaugurates the “Tetrarchy” by appointing junior partners (known as “Caesars”) to assist with ruling the East and West: Galerius serves under Diocletian in the East and Constantius I serves under Maximian in the West. Diocletian and Maximian are known as the “Augustans.” Constantius I spearheads the retaking of Britain, and in AD 296 he routs Allectus’ largely barbarian forces and Allectus falls to the sword. The “British Empire” comes to an end, incorporated into the fold of the Western Empire under Maximian and Constantius I.  

THE FOURTH CENTURY A.D. 

AD 300 – By the turn of the 4th century, Britain has gone from two provinces (Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior) to four provinces. The former titles were abandoned, and the four provinces included Maximia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, and Flavia Caesariensis. The fourth century would be the “Golden Age” of Roman Britain: the accumulation of wealth and the rise of the southern villas that began after the Age of Severus reaches its zenith. 

AD 305-327 – Emperors Diocletian and Maximian abdicate to their Caesars. Constantius I (r. 305-306) becomes Emperor of the West with Severus II (r. 306-307) as his Caesar. When Constantius I dies, the city of York rejects the accession of Severus II by proclaiming Constantius I’s son, CONSTANTINE I, as emperor. The House of Constantine and the House of Maximian feud for control of the West, and in AD 312 Constantine defeats his rival Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, using troops partly raised in Britain. The West falls under exclusive control of Constantine. In AD 313 Constantine makes the Edict of Milan, which doesn’t make Christianity the empire’s official religion (a popular misunderstanding) but, rather, makes religious toleration a facet of the empire. Constantine defeats Licinius, the ruler of the East, in AD 327, bringing Diocletian’s division of the empire to an end and consolidating the West and East under his control. 

Pictish Warriors

AD 337-340 – After Constantine’s death, control of the empire passes to his sons: Constantine II (r. 337-340) rules Britain, Gaul, and Spain; Constantius II (r. 337-361) rules in the East; and Constans (r. 337-350) rules Italy, Africa, and Central Europe. In AD 340 Constans murders his brother, Constantine II, and Britain passes into Constans’ control. In the following years Britain changes hands a number of times as men struggle against one another to rule the empire. 

AD 367 – The “Barbarian Conspiracy” overruns Britain: Picts and Scots laid waste to Roman Britain from the north, and Franks and Saxons launched raids into Gaul. The Western Roman Empire is ruled by Gratian and Valentinian I, and they send Theodosius to Britain to take charge of her defenses against the Picts and Scots. 

THE FIFTH CENTURY A.D.

AD 407-411 – The imperial “hunger games” continue throughout the Empire while Roman Britain faces off against growing pressures from the Picts and Scots to the north and the Franks and Saxons across the German Sea. In AD 407 Constantine III of Britain proclaims himself Emperor and moves to Gaul, taking much of what was left of Britain’s already malnourished garrison. Constantine III takes Spain in AD 408, and the Western Emperor, HONORIUS (r. 395-423), responds to pleas for assistance from the weakened Britain by telling them, “Sorry, can’t help, look to your own defenses against the barbarians.” Constantine III meets his match and is defeated in AD 411. 

 AD 429 – As barbarian hordes continue to harass Britain, St. Germanus of Auxerre arrives in Britain not to fight against the barbarians but to fight against the Pelagian Heresy. 

Anglo-Saxon Warriors

AD 449 – This is the reported date of the Anglo-Saxon Invasion, when the raids from across the Channel become invasions with consequent settlements. Roman Britain no longer exists. Roman towns fall into disrepair and the villas are slowly abandoned. This is the age of the mythical “King Arthur” who stands against the Anglo-Saxon hordes, but Britain’s fate is sealed: soon the Angles, with their own name for their British territory—“Aengland”—will become the dominant force on the island until the Norman Invasion five centuries later.