the month in snapshots

 

the year in books [IX]

The tenth installment of 2021's Reading Queue is a series of science fiction novels largely dominated by James S.A. Corey's Expanse Series. I tried watching the TV adaptation of his series but just couldn't get into it; the books are far better. The nine-book series ends in November with the final installment Leviathan Falls, which I've already purchased on pre-order and should finish before the year's out. The Expanse Series is hands-down the best science fiction series I've ever read, and it'll be bittersweet to read the conclusion. Other books in this Reading Queue Wrap-Up include John Scalzi's Old Man's War (a fantastic novel), a series of short stories entitled Engineering Infinity, and Niven and Pournelle's Footfall (which wasn't as good as I hoped it would be). 

the year in books [VIII]

The ninth installment of my 2021 Reading Queue is a bittersweet one, for it marks the end of my four-year journey through the collected works of Patrick O'Brien's Aubrey-Maturin Series and Bernard Cornwell's Sharpe Series. Both series span the Napoleonic Wars, and I read them in tandem chronologically. O'Brien masterfully dealt with naval exploits on the High Seas, and Cornwell carried us through the British adventures fighting against Napoleon's French armies in the early 19th century. I'll sorely miss these characters, and already I'm itching for another historical fiction series to begin reading through. There are some historical fiction lists I've compiled for both the American Revolution and Civil War, and there are a few series that also take place during the Napoleonic Wars. We'll see what happens. But, man, I'm pretty bummed to be done with these books. 

#institutes [IV]

Select Quotes from John Calvin's 'The Institutes of the Christian Religion'

All quotes below are from Book One: Chapters 16-18

The main subject is the Providence of God

~  Chapter Sixteen  ~

The Providence of God: A Summary. 'The Providence of God, as taught in Scripture, is opposed to fortune and fortuitous causes. By an erroneous opinion prevailing in all ages, an opinion almost universally prevailing in our own day—viz. that all things happen fortuitously, the true doctrine of Providence has not only been obscured, but almost buried. If one falls among robbers, or ravenous beasts; if a sudden gust of wind at sea causes shipwreck; if one is struck down by the fall of a house or a tree; if another, when wandering through desert paths, meets with deliverance; or, after being tossed by the waves, arrives in port, and makes some wondrous hair-breadth escape from death—all these occurrences, prosperous as well as adverse, carnal sense will attribute to fortune. But whose has learned from the mouth of Christ that all the hairs of his head are numbered (Mt. 10:30), will look farther for the cause, and hold that all events whatsoever are governed by the secret counsel of God.'

Nature as Theological Mechanisms. 'If it is said that God fully manifests his beneficence to the human race, by furnishing heaven and earth with the ordinary power of producing food, the explanation is meagre and heathenish: as if the fertility of one year were not a special blessing, the penury and dearth of another a special punishment and curse from God. But as it would occupy too much time to enumerate all the arguments, let the authority of God himself suffice. In the Law and the Prophets he repeatedly declares, that as often as he waters the earth with dew and rain, he manifests his favour, that by his command the heaven becomes hard as iron, the crops are destroyed by mildew and other evils, that storms and hail, in devastating the fields, are signs of sure and special vengeance. This being admitted, it is certain that not a drop of rain falls without the express command of God.'

The Decree of God and Human Freedom. 'The prophet Jeremiah exclaims, “O Lord, I know that the way of man is not in himself: it is not in man that walketh to direct his steps,” (Jer. 10:23). Solomon again says, “Man’s goings are of the Lord: how can a man then understand his own way?” (Prov. 20:24). Will it now be said that man is moved by God according to the bent of his nature, but that man himself gives the movement any direction he pleases? Were it truly so, man would have the full disposal of his own ways. To this it will perhaps be answered, that man can do nothing without the power of God. But the answer will not avail, since both Jeremiah and Solomon attribute to God not power only, but also election and decree. And Solomon, in another place, elegantly rebukes the rashness of men in fixing their plans without reference to God, as if they were not led by his hand. “The preparations of the heart in man, and the answer of the tongue, is from the Lord,” (Prov. 16:1).'

The Decree of God in All Things. 'Scriptures moreover, the better to show that every thing done in the world is according to his decree, declares that the things which seem most fortuitous are subject to him. For what seems more attributable to chance than the branch which falls from a tree, and kills the passing traveller? But the Lord sees very differently, and declares that He delivered him into the hand of the slayer (Exod. 21:13). In like manners who does not attribute the lot to the blindness of Fortune? Not so the Lord, who claims the decision for himself (Prov. 16:33). He says not, that by his power the lot is thrown into the lap, and taken out, but declares that the only thing which could be attributed to chance is from him... [A]nother prophet upbraids the profane, who ascribe it to human industry, or to fortune, that some grovel in the mire while others rise to honour. “Promotion cometh neither from the east, nor from the west, nor from the south. But God is the judge: he putteth down ones and setteth up another,” (Ps. 75:6, 7). Because God cannot divest himself of the office of judge, he infers that to his secret counsel it is owing that some are elevated, while others remain without honour.'

God as the Disposer and Ruler of All Things. '[We] do not admit the term Fate, both because it is of the class which Paul teaches us to shun, as profane novelties (1 Tim. 6:20), and also because it is attempted, by means of an odious term, to fix a stigma on the truth of God. But the dogma itself is falsely and maliciously imputed to us. For we do not with the Stoics imagine a necessity consisting of a perpetual chain of causes, and a kind of involved series contained in nature, but we hold that God is the disposer and ruler of all things,—that from the remotest eternity, according to his own wisdom, he decreed what he was to do, and now by his power executes what he decreed. Hence we maintain, that by his providence, not heaven and earth and inanimate creatures only, but also the counsels and wills of men are so governed as to move exactly in the course which he has destined.'

The Decree of God and Our Experience of Fortuitous Causes. '[Though] all things are ordered by the counsel and certain arrangement of God, to us, however, they are fortuitous,—not because we imagine that Fortune rules the world and mankind, and turns all things upside down at random (far be such a heartless thought from every Christian breast); but as the order, method, end, and necessity of events, are, for the most part, hidden in the counsel of God, though it is certain that they are produced by the will of God, they have the appearance of being fortuitous, such being the form under which they present themselves to us, whether considered in their own nature, or estimated according to our knowledge and Judgment. Let us suppose, for example, that a merchant, after entering a forest in company with trust-worthy individuals, imprudently strays from his companions and wanders bewildered till he falls into a den of robbers and is murdered. His death was not only foreseen by the eye of God, but had been fixed by his decree. For it is said, not that he foresaw how far the life of each individual should extend, but that he determined and fixed the bounds which could not be passed (Job 14:5). Still, in relation to our capacity of discernment, all these things appear fortuitous. How will the Christian feel? Though he will consider that every circumstance which occurred in that person’s death was indeed in its nature fortuitous, he will have no doubt that the Providence of God overruled it and guided fortune to his own end. The same thing holds in the case of future contingencies. All future events being uncertain to us, seem in suspense as if ready to take either direction. Still, however, the impression remains seated in our hearts, that nothing will happen which the Lord has not provided.'

~  Chapter Seventeen  ~

The Aims of God's Providence. '[The] Providence of God is to be considered with reference both to the past and the future; and, secondly, that in overruling all things, it works at one time with means, at another without means, and at another against means. Lastly, the design of God is to show that He takes care of the whole human race, but is especially vigilant in governing the Church, which he favours with a closer inspection. Moreover, we must add, that although the paternal favour and beneficence, as well as the judicial severity of God, is often conspicuous in the whole course of his Providence, yet occasionally as the causes of events are concealed, the thought is apt to rise, that human affairs are whirled about by the blind impulse of Fortune, or our carnal nature inclines us to speak as if God were amusing himself by tossing men up and down like balls. It is true, indeed, that if with sedate and quiet minds we were disposed to learn, the issue would at length make it manifest, that the counsel of God was in accordance with the highest reason, that his purpose was either to train his people to patience, correct their depraved affections, tame their wantonness, inure them to self-denial, and arouse them from torpor; or, on the other hand, to cast down the proud, defeat the craftiness of the ungodly, and frustrate all their schemes.'

The Providence of God to Display His Glory. '[While] our adversities ought always to remind us of our sins, that the punishment may incline us to repentance, we see, moreover, how Christ declares there is something more in the secret counsel of his Father than to chastise every one as he deserves. For he says of the man who was born blind, “Neither has this man sinned, nor his parents: but that the works of God should be made manifest in him,” (John 9:3). Here, where calamity takes precedence even of birth, our carnal sense murmurs as if God were unmerciful in thus afflicting those who have not offended. But Christ declares that, provided we had eyes clear enough, we should perceive that in this spectacle the glory of his Father is brightly displayed.'

Providence and God's Secret Counsels. '[When] the tumultuous aspect of human affairs unfits us for judging, we should still hold, that God, in the pure light of his justice and wisdom, keeps all these commotions in due subordination, and conducts them to their proper end. And certainly in this matter many display monstrous infatuation, presuming to subject the works of God to their calculation, and discuss his secret counsels, as well as to pass a precipitate Judgment on things unknown, and that with greater license than on the doings of mortal men.... [In] the present day so many dogs tear this doctrine with envenomed teeth, or, at least, assail it with their bark, refusing to give more license to God than their own reason dictates to themselves. With what petulance, too, are we assailed for not being contented with the precepts of the Law, in which the will of God is comprehended, and for maintaining that the world is governed by his secret counsels? As if our doctrine were the figment of our own brain, and were not distinctly declared by the Spirit, and repeated in innumerable forms of expression!'

The Mysteries of God in His Providence. 'It is true, indeed, that in the law and the gospel are comprehended mysteries which far transcend the measure of our sense; but since God, to enable his people to understand those mysteries which he has deigned to reveal in his word, enlightens their minds with a spirit of understanding, they are now no longer a deep, but a path in which they can walk safely—a lamp to guide their feet—a light of life—a school of clear and certain truth. But the admirable method of governing the world is justly called a deep, because, while it lies hid from us, it is to be reverently adored. Both views Moses has beautifully expressed in a few words. “Secret things,” saith he, “belong unto the Lord our God, but those things which are revealed belong unto us and to our children for ever,” (Deut. 29:29). We see how he enjoins us not only studiously to meditate on the law, but to look up with reverence to the secret Providence of God.'

The Mysteries of God in His Providence (II). 'The author of the Book [of Job], after taking an ample survey of the universe, and discoursing magnificently on the works of God, at length adds, “Lo, these are parts of his ways: but how little a portion is heard of him?” (Job 26:14). For which reason he, in another passage, distinguishes between the wisdom which dwells in God, and the measure of wisdom which he has assigned to man (Job 28:21, 28). After discoursing of the secrets of nature, he says that wisdom “is hid from the eyes of all living;” that “God understandeth the way thereof.” Shortly after he adds, that it has been divulged that it might be investigated; for “unto man he said, Behold the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom.” To this the words of Augustine refer, “As we do not know all the things which God does respecting us in the best order, we ought, with good intention, to act according to the Law, and in some things be acted upon according to the Law, his Providence being a Law immutable,” (August. Quest. lib. 83 c. 27).'

Why, then, should evil men be blamed? '[Neither] thefts nor adulteries, nor murders, are perpetrated without an interposition of the divine will. Why, then, they ask, should the thief be punished for robbing him whom the Lord chose to chastise with poverty? Why should the murderer be punished for slaying him whose life the Lord had terminated? If all such persons serve the will of God, why should they be punished? I deny that they serve the will of God. For we cannot say that he who is carried away by a wicked mind performs service on the order of God, when he is only following his own malignant desires. He obeys God, who, being instructed in his will, hastens in the direction in which God calls him. But how are we so instructed unless by his word? The will declared by his word is, therefore, that which we must keep in view in acting, God requires of us nothing but what he enjoins. If we design anything contrary to his precept, it is not obedience, but contumacy and transgression. But if he did not will it, we could not do it. I admit this. But do we act wickedly for the purpose of yielding obedience to him? This, assuredly, he does not command. Nay, rather we rush on, not thinking of what he wishes, but so inflamed by our own passionate lust, that, with destined purpose, we strive against him. And in this way, while acting wickedly, we serve his righteous ordination, since in his boundless wisdom he well knows how to use bad instruments for good purposes.'

The Comfort of God's Providence. 'The Christian, then, being most fully persuaded, that all things come to pass by the dispensation of God, and that nothing happens fortuitously, will always direct his eye to him as the principal cause of events, at the same time paying due regard to inferior causes in their own place. Next, he will have no doubt that a special providence is awake for his preservation, and will not suffer anything to happen that will not turn to his good and safety... [When] once the light of Divine Providence has illumined the believer’s soul, he is relieved and set free, not only from the extreme fear and anxiety which formerly oppressed him, but from all care. For as he justly shudders at the idea of chance, so he can confidently commit himself to God. This, I say, is his comfort, that his heavenly Father so embraces all things under his power—so governs them at will by his nod—so regulates them by his wisdom, that nothing takes place save according to his appointment; that received into his favour, and entrusted to the care of his angels neither fire, nor water, nor sword, can do him harm, except in so far as God their master is pleased to permit.'

Our Times Are In His Hands. 'David, considering the various turns which human life undergoes as it rolls, and in a manner whirls around, retakes himself to this asylum, “My times are in thy hand,” (Ps. 31:15). He might have said the course of life or time in the singular number, but by times he meant to express, that how unstable soever the condition of man may be, the vicissitudes which are ever and anon taking place are under divine regulation.'

~  Chapter Eighteen  ~

Nothing is by Random, Blind Impulse. 'That men do nothing save at the secret instigation of God, and do not discuss and deliberate on any thing but what he has previously decreed with himself and brings to pass by his secret direction, is proved by numberless clear passages of Scripture. What we formerly quoted from the Psalms, to the effect that he does whatever pleases him, certainly extends to all the actions of men. If God is the arbiter of peace and war, as is there said, and that without any exception, who will venture to say that men are borne along at random with a blind impulse, while He is unconscious or quiescent?'

God Using Evil Entities as Instruments for His Plan. 'From the first chapter of Job we learn that Satan appears in the presence of God to receive his orders, just as do the angels who obey spontaneously. The manner and the end are different, but still the fact is, that he cannot attempt anything without the will of God. But though afterwards his power to afflict the saint seems to be only a bare permission, yet as the sentiment is true, “The Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; as it pleased the Lord, so it has been done,” we infer that God was the author of that trial of which Satan and wicked robbers were merely the instruments. Satan’s aim is to drive the saint to madness by despair. The Sabeans cruelly and wickedly make a sudden incursion to rob another of his goods. Job acknowledges that he was deprived of all his property, and brought to poverty, because such was the pleasure of God. Therefore, whatever men or Satan himself devise, God holds the helm, and makes all their efforts contribute to the execution of his Judgments.'

Examples of Primary and Secondary Causes. 'The Jews purposed to destroy Christ. Pilate and the soldiers indulged them in their fury; yet the disciples confess in solemn prayer that all the wicked did nothing but what the hand and counsel of God had decreed (Acts 4:28), just as Peter had previously said in his discourse, that Christ was delivered to death by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God (Acts 2:23); in other words, that God, to whom all things are known from the beginning, had determined what the Jews had executed... Absalom incestuously defiling his father’s bed, perpetrates a detestable crime. God, however, declares that it was his work; for the words are, “Thou midst it secretly, but I will do this thing before all Israel, and before the sun.”... The cruelties of the Chaldeans in Judea are declared by Jeremiah to be the work of God. For which reason, Nebuchadnezzar is called the servant of God. God frequently exclaims, that by his hiss, by the clang of his trumpet, by his authority and command, the wicked are excited to war. He calls the Assyrian the rod of his anger, and the axe which he wields in his hand. The overthrow of the city and downfall of the temple, he calls his own work.'

Providence: The Testimony of Scripture. 'Those who have a tolerable acquaintance with the Scriptures see that, with a view to brevity, I am only producing a few out of many passages, from which it is perfectly clear that it is the merest trifling to substitute a bare permission for the providence of God, as if he sat in a watch-tower waiting for fortuitous events, his Judgments meanwhile depending on the will of man.'

God Blinds, Smites, and Intoxicates. '[Nothing] can be clearer than the many passages which declare, that he blinds the minds of men, and smites them with giddiness, intoxicates them with a spirit of stupor, renders them infatuated, and hardens their hearts. Even these expressions many would confine to permissions as if, by deserting the reprobate, he allowed them to be blinded by Satan. But since the Holy Spirit distinctly says, that the blindness and infatuation are inflicted by the just Judgment of God, the solution is altogether inadmissible.'

Inescapable Providence. '[Since] the will of God is said to be the cause of all things, all the counsels and actions of men must be held to be governed by his providence; so that he not only exerts his power in the elect, who are guided by the Holy Spirit, but also forces the reprobate to do him service.'

Providence and the Feebleness of Our Intellect. '[The] will of God is not at variance with itself. It undergoes no change. He makes no pretense of not willing what he wills, but while in himself the will is one and undivided, to us it appears manifold, because, from the feebleness of our intellect, we cannot comprehend how, though after a different manner, he wills and wills not the very same thing. Paul terms the calling of the Gentiles a hidden mystery, and shortly after adds, that therein was manifested the manifold wisdom of God (Eph. 3:10)... [When] we cannot comprehend how God can will that to be done which he forbids us to do, let us call to mind our imbecility, and remember that the light in which he dwells is not without cause termed inaccessible (1 Tim. 6:16).'

A Quote from Augustine. “Great is the work of God, exquisite in all he wills! so that, in a manner wondrous and ineffable, that is not done without his will which is done contrary to it, because it could not be done if he did not permit; nor does he permit it unwillingly, but willingly; nor would He who is good permit evil to be done, were he not omnipotent to bring good out of evil,” (Augustin. in Ps. 111:2).

Dino of the Week: Lesothosaurus

Type Species: Lesothosaurus diagnosticus

Classification: Dinosauria - Ornithischia - Heterodontosauridae

Time Period: Early Jurassic

Location: South Africa

Diet: Opportunistic Omnivore

Lesothosaurus was an herbivorous or omnivorous heterodontosaur from South Africa. It lived in a semi-arid environment about 200-190 million years ago during the Early Jurassic. It could grow up to six feet in length. It had long, slender legs, small arms with four-fingered hands that weren’t great at grasping, and a slender tail. It was probably a fast runner. Its neck was short but flexible; its skull was short and flat; and it had large eye sockets. It had a short, pointed snout that ended in a horny beak. Behind the beak were leaf-shaped teeth lining the jaws, and near the front of the upper jaws it had twelve fang-like teeth. Lesothosaurus sliced up its food with the beak, but it wouldn’t have been able to chew very well. Studies of tooth wear show less abrasion on the teeth than are expected with an herbivore, indicating that Lesothosaurus was an opportunistic omnivore that fed on plants during the wet seasons and small animals during the dry seasons. It had a distinctive femoral head not seen in other dinosaurs, and it was likely gregarious, living in social groups. 

Dino of the Week: Heterodontosaurus

Type Species: Heterodontosaurus tucki

Classification: Dinosauria - Ornithischia - Heterodontosauridae

Time Period: Early Jurassic

Location: South Africa

Diet: Herbivore or Omnivore

Heterodontosaurus was an early ornithischian dinosaur that lived during the Hettangian and Sinemurian stages of the Early Jurassic some 200-190 million years ago. Its remains are part of the Upper Elliot Formation of South Africa; its environment was semi-dry, and it lived among prosauropods and other early ornithischians. The number of different ornithischian species in its habitat implies that ornithischians diversified wildly in the Early Jurassic, setting the stage for their continued dramatic variation throughout the Mesozoic, and that they were able to co-exist because of niche partitioning (while these early ornithischians were all herbivorous or at least omnivorous, they would’ve ‘shared’ the environment by different species focusing on different foodstuffs). 

Several Heterodontosaurus individuals have been found, including a complete skeleton (a rarity for fossilization). These individuals come in two different ‘sizes’, and though this may indicate two different species – one larger than the other – most paleontologists believe it’s a matter of sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism refers to anatomical differences between males and females of the same species, usually in regards to height or size but which can also be present in ornamentation. Sexual dimorphism is common among gregarious (i.e. ‘social’) animals, so sexual dimorphism in Heterodontosaurus would imply that they lived in groups. These animals reached between four feet and five and a half feet in length and weighed between four and twenty-two pounds. Their bodies were short with flexible tails. Their five-fingered forelimbs were long and robust and capable of grasping. The hind limbs were long, slender, and four-toed. Their skulls were elongated and narrow, and they were triangular when viewed from the side. Most scientists believe Heterodontosaurus had long, hollow, feather-like fibers over much of its body. These fibers haven’t been preserved in these South African specimens, but a heterodontosaur cousin in China – Tianyulong – had such feather-like fibers. Though Heterodontosaurus lived sixty million years before its Chinese cousin, scientists believe it’s not unreasonable to assume this is a shared characteristic and perhaps even a derived facet of heterodontosaurs in general. 

Heterodontosaurus’ name means ‘different toothed lizard,’ a reference to the fact that it had heterodont (or ‘mismatched’) teeth. Most dinosaurs have a single kind of tooth in their jaws, but Heterodontosaurus and its heterodontosaur kin had three: it had small, incisor-like teeth in the upper jaw; these were followed by long, canine-like teeth and chisel-like cheek-teeth hidden behind its fleshy cheeks. The presence of different types of teeth is rare for dinosaurs and reptiles but common in mammals. Heterodontosaurus’ beaked tip of the snout was toothless. Despite the presence of serrated teeth, it’s believed that Heterodontosaurus was nevertheless herbivorous or at least omnivorous. Some speculate that it used its blade-like canines to sift through topsoil, scrounging for roots or other foodstuffs. Some have even argued that the beak was used to break into termite mounds. Heterodontosaurus’ tooth replacement was sporadic, unlike its relatives. 

Dino of the Week: Abrictosaurus

Type Species: Abrictosaurus consors

Classification: Dinosauria - Ornithischia - Heterodontosauridae

Time Period: Early Jurassic

Location: South Africa

Diet: Herbivore or Omnivore

Abrictosaurus was a heterodontosaur that lived in South Africa during the Hettangian and Sinemurian stages of the Early Jurassic 200-190 million years ago. It’s known from the fossil remains of two individuals. Its habitat consisted of sand dunes and seasonal floodplains in a semiarid environment with sporadic rainfall. It likely practiced niche partitioning in its herbivorous eating habits, sharing the ecosystem with other heterodontosaurs like Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus. Other organisms in the environment included land-dwelling crocodylomorphs, early mammals, the theropod Coelophysis, and the prosauropod Massospondylus. 

Abrictosaurus had large, canine-like tusks – called ‘caniniforms’ – in both its upper and lower jaws. It had no teeth in the front of its jaws; in its place was a hard beak likely used to crop vegetation. A handful of primitive heterodontosaur features indicate that it is the most basal member of Heterodontosauridae. For example, Abrictosaurus had widely separated cheek teeth with low crowns more similar to other ornithischians, whereas Heterodontosaurus and other heterodontosaurs had high-crowned cheek teeth that overlapped each other in the jaw to form a continuous chewing surface similar to the later Cretaceous hadrosaurs. Another example is in Abrictosaurus’ tusks, which were more primitive than those of more derived heterodontosaurs. It’s widely believed that Abrictosaurus was a gregarious creature; this is indicated by the fact that one of the two specimens recovered has much smaller tusks. This may be an example of sexual dimorphism; in many modern mammals, tusks of different sizes are used to differentiate gender with musk deer, walrus, Asian elephants, and many pigs. Thus it’s likely that the fossilized remains belong to both a male and a female Abrictosaurus. 

Dino of the Week: Dracovenator

Dracovenator ambushing a flock of early ornithischians

Type Species: Dracovenator regenti

Classification: Dinosauria - Saurischia - Theropoda - Dilophosauridae 

Time Period: Early Jurassic

Location: South Africa

Diet: Carnivore

Dracovenator was a medium-sized carnivorous Early Jurassic theropod that lived around 201 to 199 million years ago in South Africa. It’s based solely upon partial skull fragments, so there’s much speculation about its length and weight (though scientists estimate that it grew between eighteen and twenty-one feet in length and weighed around 882 pounds). Its remains were discovered in the Upper Elliot Formation in South Africa, and it lived alongside numerous crocodylomorphs, many early ornithischians – such as Abrictosaurus, Heterodontosaurus, and Lesothosaurus – and among the prosauropods such as Massospondylus and Plateosaurus. Paleontologists speculate that Dracovenator preyed upon prosauropods but may also have attempted to ambush the fast-running ornithischians of the day. 

Dracovenator is considered a dilophosaurid theropod because of skull similarities with the much later Dilophosaurus. The back end of its lower jaw features a series of lumps and bumps similar to those seen with Dilophosaurus. The presence of a crest on Dracovenator’s skull is largely conjectural, based mostly upon the fact that Dilophosaurus had such a crest. 

Dino of the Week: Vulcanodon

Type Species: Vulcanodon karibaensis

Classification: Dinosauria - Saurischia - Sauropoda - Gravisauria - Vulcanodontidae

Time Period: Early Jurassic

Location: South Africa

Diet: Herbivore

Vulcanodon was a sauropod that lived in South Africa during the Sinemurian to Toarcian stages of the Early Jurassic. At this point in time, southern Africa was a hotspot of volcanic activity that threaded much of southern Africa and Antarctica’s landscape with extensive flood basalts (‘lava flows’). Vulcanodon was discovered in one of these ‘volcano beds’, a fossil-bearing sediment unit within the Batoka Formation, which is composed primarily of flood basalts. Hence its name: ‘volcano tooth.’ The habitat in which it was found was desert-like in the late Early Jurassic, as is shown by the wind-blown sands of the Forest Sandstone Formation that underlies the volcano beds. Scientists speculate that the sediments in which Vulcanodon died may represent distal alluvial fan deposits that leveled off into a desert landscape. This region may have contained lakes during the wet season, and Vulcanodon may have roamed the shores of wadis that cut into the alluvial fans. It’s possible that this sauropod fed upon the plants that sprouted around watering holes; or maybe it gorged itself sick during the wet seasons and survived on its fat reserves during the dry seasons. Several teeth from an unknown theropod were found among its remains, indicating that it had been scavenged after death. 

Vulcanodon’s discovery in an arid environment prompted quite a stir. For decades it was assumed that sauropods were mainly aquatic, thriving in lush peat swamps and requiring the buoyancy of water to support their bodyweight. In 1984 it was pointed out that Vulcanodon – at that point the most primitive known sauropod – lived in a desert-like environment and would’ve thus been wholly terrestrial. This implied that sauropod gigantism wasn’t an adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle. Vulcanodon helped nail the lid on the coffin of ‘aquatic’ sauropods. For a long time it was considered the earliest true sauropod, at least until the discovery of the Late Triassic Isanosaurus in 2000. Though Vulcanodon was thought to have lived in the Hettangian stage of the Early Jurassic (the Jurassic’s earliest stage), further study has shown that it actually lived much later, in the last stage (the Toarcian) of the Early Jurassic. 

Though a true sauropod, Vulcanodon has features highlighting its close relations with prosauropods. It was a relatively small sauropod, measuring thirty-six feet in length. Though it was already fully quadrupedal with column-like legs, its limb proportions were intermediate between its prosauropod ancestors and those of more derived sauropods; yet its forelimbs were much more similar to later sauropods than prosauropods, because they were straight and slender.

Crossroads and the Secularization of the American Church

Crossroads Church Oakley (not pictured) came under fire two weeks ago when a guest speaker spoke against transgenderism. Many of the members of the church and outside members of the community responded in apoplectic fashion, flooding social media with vitriol against the church's bigotry and planning weekend protests outside the main campus. The head pastor, Brian Tome, sought to quell the controversy by giving a special 'disclaimer' at next week's service. His take on the current Alphabet Mafia, which he entitled the 'Radical Middle,' is really just pure liberalism from five years ago. While admitting that Scripture says some uncomfortable things about sexual ethics, he insisted that one's sexuality won't send them to hell - despite the fact that the Bible says otherwise - and wanted everyone to know that Crossroads remains welcoming to members of the LGBTQ crowd. This placated few people, as Christians who know God's Word were able to see how he twisted things around, and the LGBTQ crowd recognized that he wasn't outright affirming their lifestyle and practice.

While much of the hoopla surrounding Crossroads these last few weeks has settled down, the whole episode has lain on me heavy. Crossroads epitomizes the direction of many churches when it comes to swallowing culture's ideology. Sure, a lot of churches have gone fully liberal (protesters were more than happy to distribute a print-out of apostasized churches), but far more are losing their resiliency in the face of our culture's relentless warfare - and make no mistake about it, culture is at war with God and His design. The only ones who seem to disavow this fact are biblical conservatives; secularists know it to be the case, and they act accordingly. Conservative Christians deny this is the case and pretend everything is okay, and so it's no surprise that they keep ceding ground. Crossroads is an example of this very thing: by attempting to be welcoming and loving, they have brushed biblical truth under the table because it might hurt their bottom line of pulling people into the church. This can't be denied; even Tome admitted that Crossroads has never addressed the sensitive issue of transgenderism, despite transgenderism - a blatant distortion and destruction of God's design - having become the spearhead of culture's campaign against biblical orthodoxy. Is it really surprising that so many of those in Crossroads were taken aback when Tome admitted, perhaps a bit too sheepishly, that Scripture does have a word to say about sexual ethics? In the past decade - even in the past five years - American culture has undergone a significant shift (a better word might be 'plunge') into increasingly godless living, and those who don't affirm and praise it are viewed as bigoted and even anti-human. Secular culture's relentless victory, through its own preaching and propaganda, is evident in the fact that its nonsensical ideology is becoming a matter of 'common sense.' Any who dare point out the logical inconsistencies or the fact that what culture's promoting is flagrantly anti-God are condemned as fools.

Perhaps the most disheartening part of the whole affair has been seeing how many old friends and acquaintances from college - a Christian college, mind you - have swallowed the lie. Out of everyone I used to hang around with, no one stood up for what the Bible actually teaches, and they praised and supported those protesting Crossroads. I told my wife that out of all the people involved in a house church I was a part of back in 2010, no one has remained in the faith. Some may label themselves Christians, but that label is called into question when they support and praise those very things God detests. Of course, they would label me as old-fashioned at best or downright bigoted at worst; don't I know, they would say, that those verses so often thought to condemn homosexual activity and its ilk really meant something different when context is considered? I've pondered this subject at length, and studied those passages in great depth, and the new liberal interpretations of those passages is hogwash. It should tell you something when the simplest readings of the text are the very readings that the church, since its inception, have embraced; it should tell you even more when you realize that the 'new' interpretations arose in sync with culture's headlong plunge into depravity. The simple fact is that Scripture condemns any and all sexual deviations from God's good design; attempts to hide, blur, or flat-out deny this rightful condemnation aren't rooted in devotion to Scripture but in devotion to appeasing culture; and when we scoff at God's law and judgments, we are failing to delight in the Law of the Lord. Christians shouldn't be put-off by God's condemnation of wickedness; we should rejoice in it and praise it as just. We shouldn't be comfortable and cozy with the practice of wickedness; it should make us want to throw up. When we disparage the Bible's teaching and pretend it means something different, we are, in effect, showing our hand. 

Bible-believing Christians - by which I mean those who read the Bible and embrace it for what it says, not for what godless culture wants it to say - are more and more in the minority. Liberalism has captured many denominations that not only affirm those openly celebrating sexual deviance but also proudly elevate them to places of leadership in the church. Far more churches have yet to go that far, but they're well on the way. Crossroads will be fully liberal in 5-10 years, and that's being generous. Their 'Radical Middle' is the liberalism of five years ago that most churches detested, but they've gone along with culture, albeit it at snail speed and lagging a bit behind. Crossroads, unless by an act of God, won't weather the storms thrust against it. My own home church, while retaining its conservative roots - the pastor and I had a nice long talk about this just last week - has failed to address these issues. Perhaps the church is scared to ruffle feathers or send ripples through the water, but whatever the reason, the fact is that our culture isn't afraid to indoctrinate our children and win them to their side; so long as the church is fearful of being called-out by the woke mob, our children will continually be won over. The question, then, is what do we do about it? My wife and I are embracing a four-fold approach for our family:

First, we are looking for a new church home. It isn't that our church has gone liberal; it's that our church has been quiet. The church cannot be passive. It cannot pretend that there's nothing going on, that this is just business as usual. It isn't that we disagree with our current church's doctrine; they remain biblical and opposed to American culture's heresies. It's simply that they're refusing to take a stand, and we see this fleshed-out not only in the 'adult services' but also in the youth group. It's rare for the youth minister to actually address those issues at the forefront of culture, even though our children are being indoctrinated via social media, music, and TV shows to swallow culture's lies. Our churches are afraid of being 'pushy' or 'controversial' whereas our culture takes pride in being exactly that way, and so it's no surprise that they're winning the hearts of our children. After much prayer and discussion, Ash and I have been 'trying out' a new church in Batavia, Ohio. It's Presbyterian, so it's different than what we're used to, and we don't align with every aspect of its doctrine, but they unashamedly preach the gospel - not just parts of the gospel, but the entire thing. We want to be a part of a church that is Bible-based, loving, and unashamed. So far this church looks like it might fit the bill, and we've felt far more peace here than we have at our current church. We want our children to be raised in a church that will oppose culture's indoctrination.

Second, we are now homeschooling our children. Public schools are one of the main sources of indoctrinating children. I used to laugh at this idea, despite my wife insisting that it was the case, until I started doing more research into the history of public schooling in which it becomes apparent that state indoctrination is the name of the game. Public schools are an avenue for the state to teach children what they want them to believe. This hit home last year in two major ways. First, I was able to overview our eighth-grader's curriculum, in which it was apparent that they were promoting identity politics and critical race theory. Second, Lakota Schools - in which our girls were enrolled - became locally renown for going the 'extra mile' in supporting identity politics: it wasn't uncommon for children to identify as animals and get into cat-fights in the hallways. No one put a stop to it because to do so would be to infringe on their identities. After much deliberation, I decided to pull our kids out of public school. We will be doing a classical Christian education in the hopes that they can not only be somewhat isolated from state-run propaganda but also so that they can learn logic and see how culture's ideology falls apart on close inspection. The church we have been visiting is heavy on homeschooling and having large families - two things we have become passionate about - so we're hopeful that the girls can develop strong friendships with others who share their worldview.

Third, we are planning on moving out of the suburbs. We currently live in West Chester; we chose to move here in 2018 because we wanted the girls in a school system that had both good advanced classes and solid IEP programs. We thought our current third-grader would need IEPs, but it turns out that she's doing just fine, thank God. Now that we are homeschooling, this incentive for suburban living is done away with. Suburban living is at odds with the simple lifestyle we want to live. We want to move somewhere in the country with land where we can have a significant garden, build a few beehives, and raise chickens and meat rabbits. We want to become more sustainable as a family and teach our children that the materialism of the suburbs is a bait-and-switch. We're looking at making the move within the next five years maximum, and in the meantime we're winnowing down on our belongings, saving and investing money, and doing all that we can to prepare for a different kind of lifestyle. While this step doesn't necessarily do anything in and of itself to oppose culture's onslaught against biblical orthodoxy, we believe it's the direction God is calling us in.

Fourth, we are planning on having lots of kids and striving to raise them in the Lord. God has already blessed us with four beautiful children, and we want to have more. Ideally we would like seven to eight children, but of course that is dependent upon God's will. One of the best ways biblical Christians can oppose culture's war against us is to have kids and raise them in the faith. Our culture hates children, and if it continues to decline in having children whilst Christians who believe that children are a blessing and a heritage from the Lord continue having more children, it's inevitable that culture will be overwhelmed. The key part of this, of course, is that covenant children be raised right. This means that they're raised to honor and love their Creator, to submit to Jesus. This involves not only going to church regularly and building community with likeminded brethren but also learning the faith at home. At our home we do 'family worship' multiple times a week in which we read Scripture, talk about it, and worship God. Our hope is that our children will grow up to love and fear the Lord and delight in obeying Him. 

These are the four steps we're currently taking - or planning on taking - in building a strong, biblical-based family in the midst of the secularization of the American church. We're not perfect at it by any means - hell, sometimes we're not even good at it! - but this is the mark for which we're aiming, and we're praying that God will bless us in our endeavors.