the year in books [IX]

This month I finished several of my Reading Queue collections. I'm pressed for time - never in life, I think, have I been blessed with such productive busyness - so I'm just going to drop them here. The Top Pick of Collection A, historical fiction of World War Two, is tied between Jeff Shaara's The Eagle's Claw and Heather Morris' The Tattooist of Auschwitz (though P.T. Deutermann's novels rank a quick second). The Top Pick of Collection B, modern unaffiliated fiction, is a tie between Ian McGuire's The North Water and Stephen King's early novel (writing as Richard Bachman) Roadwork. The Top Top Pick of Collection C would be the short history on the Sioux Wars. 

Collection A: Historical Fiction of World War Two

Collection B: Unaffiliated Fiction

Collection B: Native American Short Histories

Dino of the Week: Huayangosaurus

Type Species: Huayangosaurus taibaii

Classification: Dinosauria – Ornithischia – Thyreophora – Stegosauria - Huayangosauridae

Time Period: Middle Jurassic

Location: China 

Diet: Herbivore 

In 1979 the fossilized remains of twelve stegosaurs were discovered in China. These belonged to a new species that lived during the Bathonian and Callovian stages of the Middle Jurassic. Huayangosaurus looked a lot like its later cousin, Stegosaurus, though it was much smaller at only fifteen feet in length. Huayangosaurus lived twenty million years before Stegosaurus and is one of the earliest known stegosaurs (though Europe’s Lexovisaurus beats it to the punch by a few million years). Huayangosaurus’ primitive placement in the stegosaur ‘family tree’ is evidenced by several factors. First, this stegosaur had a broader skull than later stegosaurs, and its skull had a small opening in front of each eye and another small opening in each half of the lower jaw (these openings are absent in later stegosaurs); second, Huayangosaurus had fourteen teeth at the front of its snout (seven on each side), and later stegosaurs lacked these teeth; third, Huayangosaurus had long front limbs that were three-quarters longer than the back limbs, whereas later stegosaurs had forelimbs that were much shorter than the hind limbs; and fifth, the armor plates that ran in two rows along Huayangosaurus’ back were narrower and thicker than those adorning the backs of its later relatives.

a pair of Huayangosaurus with a herd of Omeisaurus

Huayangosaurus nevertheless resembles a ‘proper’ stegosaur. It had the distinctive double row of plates that characterize all stegosaurs; these plates began at its neck and ran along its back until it reached the hips, at which point the plates were replaced with four spikes. After this series of spikes, the plates resumed until they ended with two pairs of long spikes extending horizontally near the end of the tail. These spikes were undoubtedly defensive weapons against such predators as Gasosaurus and Monolophosaurus. Huayangosaurus, like the earlier Lexovisaurus, had two spikes that protruded either from the hips or the shoulders. The exact placement is unknown, with artistic depictions representing either location depending on artistic fancy. The current general consensus is that, as in Lexivosaurus, they were placed on the shoulders; in this case, they would serve as defensive weapons: if an assailant attacked from the front or from the forward side quadrants, Huayangosaurus could ‘thrust’ its spikes deep into the adversary’s hide. In a world without medicine, such penetrating attacks into an enemy’s organs could often be lethal. Only the most foolish of predators would attempt to make a meal out of the armed stegosaur. 

Dino of the Week: Omeisaurus

Type Species: Omeisaurus junghsiensis

Classification: Dinosauria – Saurischia – Sauropoda – Gravisauria - Eusauropoda - Mamenchisauridae 

Time Period: Middle Jurassic

Location: China 

Diet: Herbivore 

Fossils of several individual Omeisaurus were discovered in Sichuan Province, China, indicating that an entire herd had died and were buried together. These sauropods grew up to sixty-six feet in length and looked a lot like the later Mamenchisaurus (to whose ‘group’ they belong). Omeisaurus had an extremely long neck, stocky limbs, and a short body. The long neck may have been used to reach food high in the trees, or it may have been held horizontally over the ground to feed on large swathes of low-growing foliage. In this second manner of feeding, Omeisaurus would take a few steps forward and then swoop its neck over the vegetation, slowly creating a crescent-shaped swathe of devastated vegetation. This would’ve required less energy than high browsing. Omeisaurus tail was relatively short, and it may have included a club like the later Shunosaurus (though most scientists believe the club did indeed belong to Shunosaurus). 

family devotions: James 5.12-15

~ On Oaths ~

James 5.12

And above all, my brothers and sisters, do not swear, either by heaven or by earth or by any other oath. But let your “Yes” be yes and your “No” be no, so that you may not fall into judgment.

James is echoing his brother Jesus in Matthew 5.33-37, where Jesus says in the Sermon on the Mount, “Again, you have heard that the ancients were told, ‘You shall not make false vows, but shall fulfill your vows to the Lord.’ But I say to you, make no oath at all, either by heaven, for it is the throne of God, or by the earth, for it is the footstool of His feet, or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the great King. Nor shall you make an oath by your head, for you cannot make one hair white or black. But let your statement be, ‘Yes, yes’ or ‘No, no’; anything beyond these is of evil." Jesus' commands regarding oaths revolves around the importance of honesty and keeping your word. Jews swore oaths on heaven and earth, but it was believed that only an oath sworn by God was binding. Thus people would swear by lesser things, and if they failed to keep their word, it wasn't a big deal. Lesser oaths became a cover-up for lying, of hiding intentions of not following through and escaping culpability. The Bible is clear in what God thinks of lying and deception. Here are just a few point-blank verses to hone in the point: 

Proverbs 6:16-19: 'There are six things that the Lord hates, seven that are an abomination to him: haughty eyes, a lying tongue, and hands that shed innocent blood, a heart that devises wicked plans, feet that make haste to run to evil, a false witness who breathes out lies, and one who sows discord among brothers.'

Proverbs 12:22: 'Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, but those who act faithfully are his delight.'

Proverbs 19:9: 'A false witness will not go unpunished, and he who breathes out lies will perish.'

Proverbs 24:28: 'Be not a witness against your neighbor without cause, and do not deceive with your lips.'

Psalm 101:7: 'No one who practices deceit shall dwell in my house; no one who utters lies shall continue before my eyes.'

Psalm 58:3: 'The wicked are estranged from the womb; they go astray from birth, speaking lies.'

Psalm 34:13: 'Keep your tongue from evil and your lips from speaking deceit.'

Colossians 3:9-10: 'Do not lie to one another, seeing that you have put off the old self with its practices and have put on the new self, which is being renewed in knowledge after the image of its creator.'

Revelation 21:8: 'But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the detestable, as for murderers, the sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their portion will be in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur, which is the second death.'

James, writing to Jewish Christians living outside Palestine, is undercutting their traditional practice of taking oaths. He's reminding them that in all things, they need to be men and women of honesty and integrity. Letting our yes be yes and our no be no is a call to honesty in our dealings with others. It's wrong to build false trust by swearing on lesser oaths; if we say we will do something, we need to do it. 

~ Different Strokes for Different Folks ~

James 5.13

Are any of you suffering hardships? You should pray. Are any of you happy? You should sing praises. 

The religious life isn't constrained to Sunday mornings, and it isn't restricted by our emotions. The religious life is to be practiced every day and in all circumstances. That doesn't mean that the religious life of the happy will be identical to that of the one suffering: James points out that while the happy are to sing praises, the suffering ought to pray. 

The suffering James has in mind is suffering of any kind, indicated by the Greek word he uses; this includes sickness, mourning the death of a loved one, disappointments of all stripes, persecutions big or small, losses of any kind. Christians are not preserved from suffering; indeed, suffering is assumed. That Christians suffer doesn't mean that God doesn't have their back (though, let's be honest, sometimes it can feel that way in the moment); Scripture is clear that God is in control, and we receive both good and bad from His hand for His purposes and our good. 

God may ordain suffering for us to sharpen us into the godly men and women He desires us to be; as the mid-18th century English Methodist Joseph Benson writes that suffering often comes to the Christian 'so that he may be supported under his affliction, so as to be enabled to bear it with patience and resignation to the divine will, and find it to be sanctified to him, and made the means, as of exercising, so also of increasing his grace, and of purifying him as gold and silver are purified in the furnace.' God may ordain suffering for us to discipline us towards holy living, or to call us to a closer walk with Him. One theologian wrote, 'God sometimes lays his afflicting hand upon his people, when they have been negligent of their duty, and he has not heard of them for some time, in order to bring them near to him, to seek his face, pay him a visit, and pour out a prayer before him.' 

When we experience suffering, we are to pray. Often in suffering, it's difficult to put our thoughts into words; sometimes there are little thoughts but many emotions. How, then, do we pray in such a circumstance? The late 19th century Anglican minister Charles Ellicott writes, 'Long petitions, or many, cannot be always made; mind and body may be too weak and ill; but ejaculations - "Arrows of the Lord's deliverance," as Augustine called them, "shout out with a sudden quickness" - these are ever in the power of the beleaguered Christian.' The mid-19th century Presbyterian pastor Albert Barnes emphasized the privilege of prayer in suffering: 'It matters not what is the form of the trial, it is a privilege which all have to go to God in prayer. And it is an inestimable privilege. Health fails, friends die, property is lost, disappointments come upon us, danger threatens, death approaches - and to whom shall we go but to God? He ever lives. He never fails us or disappoints us if we trust in him, and his ear is ever open to our cries.'

So much for those who are suffering - what are the responsibilities of the happy? These are the folk who are in a good place in life. The Greek word James uses is euthumei, and it means to 'have the mind well.' It is to be cheerful or happy. James says those enjoying this condition in life are to 'sing praises.' 

The Greek word James uses for our English rendition of 'sing' is psallo, and it means 'to touch, twitch, or pluck.' It can refer to touching the beard, twitching a string on a bow, or to pluck the string of an instrument. The word was originally applied to instrumental music. In the context of music, it often referred to playing a lyre or harp (the ancient version of our guitar). While some argue that the New Testament demands hymns or songs be sung without musical accompaniment, the New Testament assumes on many occasions (such as here) that instruments can play a part. 

The joyful Christian is to express his gratitude for God's benevolent favor in His life by worshipping Him. The idea here is a singing from the heart: the psalms, hymns, and 'worship songs' which the New Testament mentions are to be sung in such a way that the heart is engaged. They shouldn't be treated as mere music or external performance. This heartfelt worship, which echoes the seraphim singing day and night around God's throne, is the kind of worship God desires. Paul writes in Ephesians 5.18-20 tells us:

And do not get drunk with wine, for that is dissipation, but be filled with the Spirit, speaking to one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody with your heart to the Lord; always giving thanks for all things in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to God, even the Father; and be subject to one another in the fear of Christ.

The 18th century Presbyterian minister James Macknight writes, 'When rendered cheerful by contemplating the manifestations which God hath made of his perfections in the works of creation, providence, and redemption, or by any blessing bestowed on ourselves, we are to express our joy, not by drinking, and singing profane, lewd songs, but by hymns of praise and thanksgivings offered to God for all his mercies.' Commenting on James 5.13, he writes, 'But as the precept concerning our singing psalms, when cheerful, does not imply that we are not to pray then; so the precept concerning prayer in affliction, does not imply that we are not to express our joy in suffering according to the will of God, by singing psalms or hymns, as Paul and Silas did in the jail at Philippi.” Charles Ellicott weighs in, 'There is a sadness latent in the most jubilant of earthly tunes, but not so with the heavenly; and squiring angels do not scorn to catch our humblest notes, and weave them in their endless song, if they be raised in thankfulness to Him Whom they and all creation praise.'

~ Anointing with Oil ~

James 5.14-15

Are any of you sick? You should call for the elders of the church to come and pray over you, anointing you with oil in the name of the Lord. Such a prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will raise you up. And if you have committed any sins, you will be forgiven.

James instructs the sick to call on the church's elders, who will come to pray over them and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord. The church's elders were tasked with nurturing life with God in the covenant community, with overseeing doctrinal purity and disciplining wayward members. While historically church deacons have taken on more service-oriented roles in the church, elders have a role, too, as we see here. When elders visit a sick member, they are representative of the whole church body; their prayers are those of the congregation, and it's as if the congregation is gathering around to anoint the sick with oil. 

There's debate about the reason for anointing with oil. Some argue that the oil was used medicinally for the sick person, so that the anointing of oil is just another way of saying 'take aspirin.' However, physicians of the ancient world used oil medicinally for injuries rather than sickness. Oil was used for bruises, welts, and raw wounds; the Good Samaritan of Jesus' parable used oil on a man's injuries; and oil was also applied to scratches and bruises on livestock. Given this, and the fact that anointing with oil has a rich history within Judaism from the days Moses to those of the early church, we should reject this argument.

In Judaism, the purpose of anointing with oil was to sanctify, or to set apart as holy, the person or object being anointed (Exodus 30.29). Only the priests and Tabernacle items were originally anointed, but it was later expanded to include kings (1 Samuel 10.1). A foreigner couldn't be anointed (Exodus 30.33), nor could oil be used on any common person, and it couldn't be duplicated by any Israelite (Exodus 30.32). So it seems that the elders anoint the sick to set them apart as holy before God. While this anointing may have been the practice for sick people of all stripes, it's more likely that it was reserved for those considered near death. Such an anointing would be a symbolic message amidst impending death, and it may also have been viewed as an extension of the prayer offered by the elders. James writes that the prayer offered in faith will result in healing, and 'the Lord will raise up' the sick. James may be asserting that the Lord would raise the sick person to health, or he may be indicating that the Lord will raise the sick person up in the final resurrection. 

James adds, 'If you have committed any sins, you will be forgiven.' He is acknowledging that there are occasions when illness is tied to sin. While all of us suffer death and decay as a result of Adam's sin (Romans 5.19), the Bible often correlates a person's suffering with sin (e.g. John 5.14 and 1 Corinthians 11.29-30). In these cases, the anointing of oil and the prayers of the elders are powerful for bringing the person to repentance. Matthew Henry writes:

Observe that the saving of the sick is not ascribed to the anointing with oil, but to prayer. In a time of sickness it is not cold and formal prayer that is effectual, but the prayer of faith. The great thing we should beg of God for ourselves and others in the time of sickness is, the pardon of sin. Let nothing be done to encourage any to delay, under the mistaken fancy that a confession, a prayer, a minister's absolution and exhortation, or the sacrament, will set all right at last, where the duties of a godly life have been disregarded.

Dino of the Week: Monolophosaurus

Type Species: Monolophosaurus jiangi

Classification: Dinosauria – Saurischia – Theropoda - Tetanurae

Time Period: Middle Jurassic

Location: China 

Diet: Carnivore 

Monolophosaurus is named for the single crest atop its skull. This medium-sized predator reached about eighteen feet in length and stood six feet tall at the hips. It had sharp, serrated teeth and a large but skinny head. Its remains were found in fossil rocks containing traces of water, so it may have hunted along lake shores or in coastal regions. Its single crest began on the midline of its snout and continued over the top of its skull to the frontal bones. The top of the crest ran parallel to the upper jaw edge. The frontal bones didn’t contribute to the crest, and they’re unique among theropods in that they have a combined rectangular rather than triangular shape, due to the posterior position of the crest’s rear. Though it had a crest, it wasn’t closely related to the dilophosaurids; in fact, its skeletal anatomy is more closely related to advanced ‘stiff-tailed’ theropods such as Allosaurus. Monolophosaurus may have hunted in packs to take down the sauropods of its day, such as Abrosaurus or Omeisaurus, though pack hunting for this theropod has no evidence in the fossil record; this theory derives from the fact that many early, mid-sized tetanurans such as Allosaurus did, indeed, hunt in packs. 

a pair of Monolophosaurus stalk an ichthyosaur graveyard on a southern Laurasian beach

family devotions: James 4.13 - 5.11

~ The Practical Atheist: Part One ~

James 4.13-17

Come now, you who say, “Today or tomorrow we will go into such and such a town and spend a year there and trade and make a profit”— yet you do not know what tomorrow will bring. What is your life? For you are a mist that appears for a little time and then vanishes. Instead you ought to say, “If the Lord wills, we will live and do this or that.” As it is, you boast in your arrogance. All such boasting is evil. So whoever knows the right thing to do and fails to do it, for him it is sin.

In James 4 and the beginning of James 5, James targets two kinds of 'fake Christians': those who love the world and those who pervert the gospel. The structure of this passage forms a chiasm:

  4.1-10: Warnings for those who Love the World

    4.11-12: Warnings for the Judaizers

  4.13-5.6: Warnings for those who Love the World

In chiasms, the central part - that which is bracketed - is the most important; in this case, the most dire warning is held out against the Judaizers. This makes sense, for rejecting the gospel or living contrary to its message is one thing, but twisting and perverting the gospel - and leading others astray - is quite another. In 4.13 to 5.6 James puts 'flesh and blood' on those who love the world, using a hypothetical example of an arrogant businessman who builds his wealthy empire on the backs of others. This man, though apparently claiming to love God and follow Jesus, is living as a practical atheist: he lives as if God doesn't exist. In James' example, this practical atheism takes two forms: living as if you're in control of your destiny and using this life to pursue your ambitions at the expense of those around you.

God is sovereign and has control over our lives. The boastful arrogance of the presumptuous businessman shows that while he may claim to believe God is sovereign, he lives as if he's in control of his own life. He lives absent an awareness of God's sovereign presence. James isn't saying that making plans is wrong; after all, the Bible tells us to be wise stewards of our time, and laziness and foolishness is condemned from Genesis to Revelation. The issue here isn't that the businessman is planning his business but that he's living as if he's in charge of his own life. He's living as a practical atheist. James says that living in such a way ignores two facts: we aren't in control (none of us knows what will happen tomorrow) and we are vapors, here today and gone tomorrow. The idea of us being ephemeral vapors on this earth is an idea that's littered throughout scripture, in both the Old and New Testaments. Here are just a few examples: 

Psalm 102.11 - My days are like an evening shadow; I wither away like grass.

Psalm 90.12 - So teach us to number our days that we may get a heart of wisdom.

Psalm 39.5 - Behold, you have made my days a few handbreadths, and my lifetime is as nothing before you. Surely all mankind stands as a mere breath! Selah

Job 14.1-2 - Man who is born of a woman is few of days and full of trouble. He comes out like a flower and withers; he flees like a shadow and continues not.

The Book of Ecclesiastes reads like a survey of King Solomon's accomplishments coupled with a treatise on repentance. Through his life experiences he gained wisdom, learning that wealth, pleasure, and accomplishments are empty. In Ecclesiastes 12.13-14 he gives his conclusion: 'Now all has been heard; here is the conclusion of the matter: Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the duty of all mankind. For God will bring every deed into judgment, including every hidden thing, whether it is good or evil.' The boastful businessman in James 4 lives like Solomon: he's ignoring his mortality and (as we will see in James 5) building a kingdom of his own on the backs of others. In both respects he is living as an atheist: he doesn't fear God and he doesn't obey His commandments. All Christians ought to spend their days cognizant of God's presence, honoring and revering Him as their Creator, and obeying Him. The practical atheist does none of this, showing that he doesn't really believe what he thinks he believes. He is self-deceived, which James warns about in 1.22: 'Do not merely listen to the word, and so deceive yourselves. Do what it says.”'

~ The Practical Atheist: Part Two ~

James 5.1-6

Come now, you rich! Weep and cry aloud over the miseries that are coming on you. Your riches have rotted and your clothing has become moth-eaten. Your gold and silver have rusted and their rust will be a witness against you. It will consume your flesh like fire. It is in the last days that you have hoarded treasure! Look, the pay you have held back from the workers who mowed your fields cries out against you, and the cries of the reapers have reached the ears of the Lord of Heaven’s Armies. You have lived indulgently and luxuriously on the earth. You have fattened your hearts in a day of slaughter. You have condemned and murdered the righteous person, although he does not resist you.

Who is James addressing in this passage? Here the chapter break does us a disservice, implying that James is moving to new content. This isn't the case: he's still addressing the practical atheist, the rich man addressed at the end of James 4. This rich man builds his wealth by exploiting others and spending that wealth on luxuriant, self-indulgent living. James isn't simply condemning people who have money, for wealth in and of itself isn't bad. The Corinthian church met in the home of a wealthy man, and many of Jesus' followers - particularly his women followers - were wealthy. The Bible presents wealth as a gift from God that is part of His provision and is to be used wisely for God's kingdom. The Bible condemns wealth when (a) it is made by unjust means and (b) when it is used frivolously and sinfully. The rich condemned here are those who acquire wealth by unjust means and spend it sinfully.

The wealth which such people have accumulated is their only treasure, and not only will it evaporate on Judgment Day, but it will even testify against them before the throne of God. This is coupled with the cries of those who've been exploited; our just and compassionate God hears their cries and will execute judgment against their oppressors. James calls God but His name 'Lord of Hosts,' identifying Him as the God of the angelic armies. The picture is of God going to war against the oppressors and bloodily defeating them. Their lifestyle of oppression and luxury has fattened their hearts for a day of slaughter, and they will experience that slaughter on Judgment Day. 

~ A Word to the Oppressed ~

James 5.7-11

So be patient, brothers and sisters, until the Lord’s return. Think of how the farmer waits for the precious fruit of the ground and is patient for it until it receives the early and late rains. You also be patient and strengthen your hearts, for the Lord’s return is near. Do not grumble against one another, brothers and sisters, so that you may not be judged. See, the judge stands before the gates! As an example of suffering and patience, brothers and sisters, take the prophets who spoke in the Lord’s name. Think of how we regard as blessed those who have endured. You have heard of Job’s endurance and you have seen the Lord’s purpose, that the Lord is full of compassion and mercy.

It's likely that many to whom this letter was written made a meager living by working for exploitive bosses like the ones condemned above. How are oppressed Christians to live? James writes that oppressed Christians are to be patient, waiting for God's sure judgment on their oppressors; they are to endure, and to do so without complaining, hoping in the future of God's new heavens and new earth. It is a good thing to long for Judgment Day, for on that day God will judge all evil and all evildoers. It is a good thing to rejoice in the righteous judgments of the Lord. 

James writes that the Christians aren't to 'grumble' or complain. This is an easy thing to do when under oppression, but complaining is condemned throughout the scriptures. Even in tough times, even when under oppression, we aren't to complain. Complaining is bad because it comes from an ungrateful heart that is ignorant of God's provisions; it's saying that God has failed to be faithful; it's saying that if we were God, we would do things better. When the Israelites complained in the desert wanderings because God didn't provide for them the way they liked, God responded to their ungrateful grumbling by killing a good many of them. Their complaint wasn't empty, as it was against God (Exodus 16.8). We have several commands in the New Testament against complaining, such as Philippians 2.14-16: 'Do all things without grumbling or questioning, that you may be blameless and innocent, children of God without blemish in the midst of a crooked and twisted generation, among whom you shine as lights in the world, holding fast to the word of life, so that in the day of Christ I may be proud that I did not run in vain or labor in vain.'

James shows the oppressed Christians how to endure by giving two examples: the prophets and Job. More often than not the Old Testament prophets lived in hard times in which God's people were oppressed under foreign rulers or ungodly kings; many of these prophets felt the full wrath of oppressive regimes. Elijah was hunted like a dog; Jeremiah was mocked and imprisoned; and Isaiah was likely sawed in half alive by King Manasseh. These prophets endured hard times with patience as they longed for the future when God would set everything right. The person of Job suffered grievously, losing everything he loved except his life (and it got to the point where he wanted to lose even that, cursing the very day he was conceived). He endured his trials, and the outcome was that God returned to him all he had lost, and with increase! Oppressed Christians are to endure their oppression with patience and without complaining, looking forward to the day when their oppressors are judged and they are rewarded for their endurance. Jesus promises this day will come in Matthew 18.28-29: 'And Jesus said to them, “Truly I say to you that in the renewal of the world, when the Son of Man sits on his glorious throne, you who have followed me—you also will sit on twelve thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel. And everyone who has left houses or brothers or sisters or father or mother or wife or children or fields on account of my name will receive a hundred times as much, and will inherit eternal life.'

Dino of the Week: Gasosaurus

Type Species: Gasosaurus constructus

Classification: Dinosauria – Saurischia – Theropoda – Tetanurae

Time Period: Middle Jurassic

Location: China

Diet: Carnivore

Gasosaurus’ name literally means ‘gas lizard.’ This isn’t because it had swollen bowels and was necessarily gassy, though that would be fascinating if it were true. In reality, it’s named after the gasoline company that found it while doing construction in Sichuan Province, China. The discovery of this carnivorous theropod clued scientists in to a new bone-bed dating to the Middle and early Late Jurassic. During the Jurassic Period, the area had been a forested lakeside environment, and further digs after Gasosaurus’ unearthing have revealed all sorts of sauropods, theropods, and stegosaurs. The bone-bed is known as the Shaximiao Formation, and it’s divided into an Upper and Lower portions. The ‘Upper’ bone-bed correlates with the Oxfordian stage of the Late Jurassic while the ‘Lower’ bone-bed correlates with the Bathonian and Callovian stages of the Middle Jurassic. Gasosaurus emerged at the beginning of the Middle Jurassic and remained a staple of the Asian ecosystem into the beginning of the Early Jurassic; its ten-million-year ‘reign’ lasted from about 170-160 million years (a pretty good run for a single species!). 

Gasosaurus was a ‘stiff-tailed’ tetanuran theropod that measured eleven to thirteen feet and likely weighed around 330 to 880 pounds. It had strong legs but short arms, and it shares characteristics with both more developed tetanuran theropods and earlier non-tetanurans, suggesting that Gasosaurus was near the ‘base’ of the emerging tetanurans. It coexisted with other mid-range theropods such as Chuandongocoelurus and Kaijiangosaurus, both theropods found in the Lower Shaximiao Formation. Though it probably subsisted mostly on small- to medium-sized prey, it could have theoretically taken down the more primitive sauropods in its environment, especially if it utilized pack-hunting. In the artistic depiction below, two Gasosaurus are running in the midst of a Shunosaurus herd. Though Gasosaurus and Shunosaurus co-existed, they did so for only the briefest moment at the twilight of Gasosaurus’ prehistoric career.